The Analysis of Matter

assign to our events such properties as will enable us to define the points of a topological space as classes of events, and the neighbourhoods of the points as classes of points. But we have to remember that we do not want to construct merely a topological space: what we want to construct is the four-dimensional space-time of the general theory of relativity. The following illustration will serve to introduce the problem. Consider a three-dimensional Euclidean numerical space, i.e. the manifold of all ordered triads of real numbers (, , ), with the usual definition of distance. Consider, in this space, all the spheres having a given radius and having centres whose co-ordinates are rational. The number of such spheres is . Let us define a group of these spheres as "co-punctual" if it is such that every four chosen out of the group have a common region; and let us define a co-punctual group as "punctual" if it cannot be enlarged without ceasing to be co-punctual. Then there is a one-one correspondence between the original points of our space and the punctual groups of spheres. Consequently the punctual groups of spheres form a Euclidean space. If the spheres are all distorted in any continuous way,[Pg 299] they will still enable us to construct punctual groups in the same way, and the manifold of punctual groups will still have all the topological properties which are possessed by a three-dimensional Euclidean space. Therefore if we are to use this method of constructing points out of "events," we shall have to assume that, in the resulting space, there is a possible metric according to which the points of which a given event is a member always form a spherical volume. Although this is expressed in metrical language, it is in reality a topological property, since it is unaffected by continuous deformation. It must be possible to express it in non-metrical language, though I must confess that I lack the necessary skill. I propose, therefore, to regard events as occupying regions of space-time which, in some possible metric, are spheres so far as their space-dimensions are concerned, and between a certain maximum and a certain minimum so far as their time-dimension is concerned. The region "occupied" by an event is the class of points of which it is a member. As the fundamental relation in the construction of points, we take a five-term relation of "co-punctuality," which holds between five events when there is a region common to all of them. A group of five or more events is called "co-punctual" when every quintet chosen out of the group has the relation of co-punctuality. A "point" is a co-punctual group which cannot be enlarged without ceasing to be co-punctual. In order to demonstrate the existence of points so defined, it is sufficient to assume that all events (or at least all events co-punctual with a given co-punctual quintet) can be well ordered. If Zermelo's axiom is true, this must be the case; if not, it may involve some limitation as to the number of events. I have been led by the arguments, first of Dr H. M. Sheffer, and then of Mr F. P. Ramsey, to the view that Zermelo's axiom is true; I am therefore less reluctant than I[Pg 300] should have been formerly to assume that events can be well ordered. To prove that every event is a member of at least one point, we proceed as follows—assuming that there are co-punctual quintets. Let be a well-ordered series whose field consists of all events; put Let , , , , be a co-punctual quintet. If is the only event co-punctual , , , , then the class whose only members are , , , , is a point according to the definition. If, on the other hand, there are 's other than which are co-punctual with , , , , , let be the first of them. If no other than and is co-punctual with , , , , and , then , , , , and form a point. Otherwise, let be the first other than and and co-punctual with , , , , , , then must be later in the -series than . If this process comes to an end with , then , , , , , , ... together form a point. If it does not come to an end with any finite , it may happen that no outside the series (, , ... ,...) is co-punctual with , , , and all the 's; in that case, , , , and these 's form a point. But if there are 's other than the 's and co-punctual with all of them, let be the first of them. Then is later in the -series than any of the finite 's. We proceed in this way as long as possible, using two principles: (1) given a series of 's ending with , let be the first in the -series after and co-punctual with the group of all the previous 's; (2) given a series of 's having no last term, take as the next the first in the -series which is after all the 's hitherto selected and co-punctual with all of them. If, at any stage, there is no such , the 's already selected form a point. Now this process must end sooner or later; for the 's (other than ) form an ascending series[Pg 301] selected from , and therefore, sooner or later, there will be no 's later than all the 's previously selected. At this stage, if not before, , , , and the 's already selected will form a point. Hence if all events can be well ordered, every event is a member of at least one point, provided every event is a member of a co-punctual quintet. The proof still holds if we only assume that all events co-punctual with a given quintet can be well ordered. Given any class of events , let be the class of those events which are co-punctual with a. Then by definition a is a point if . The necessary and sufficient condition that all the members of a should have a point in common is that a should be contained in . This condition is necessary, for, if is a point and is contained in , it follows that is contained in , and that , so that is contained in . The proof that the condition is sufficient is longer; it is as follows. If , is a point. If not, let denote the part of which is outside . Using again the -series of all events, put and so on, as long as possible. If , precedes in the -order. Hence, as before, there must come a stage when no fresh 's can be constructed. If is the class consisting of a together with all the 's yielded by the method, is a point. For (1) all the quintets in are co-punctual, by the construction; (2) a term co-punctual with all the quartets of cannot be later than all the 's, because if there were such a term we could construct more 's; (3) such a term cannot be[Pg 302] earlier than some member of because, if it were, it would have been chosen as the of that stage in the construction; hence no event outside is co-punctual with every quartet of . Hence is a point. To say that a collection of events have a point in common is to say that the collection is part (or the whole) of the class which is the point. Conversely, a collection of events may contain a sub-class which is a point; the necessary and sufficient condition for this is that should be contained in , where is the collection in question. The proof proceeds exactly as before, if we now make mean the part of which is not contained in . A group of events a is "co-punctual" if is contained in , and a "point" is a co-punctual group which cannot be enlarged without ceasing to be co-punctual. A few purely logical properties of points may be noted. Given any two classes and , if is contained in , then is contained in . Hence if and are points and is contained in , and are identical; for in that case and are respectively identical with and , and therefore if is contained in , is contained in , so that and are identical. Every co-punctual group of events contains at least one point. This has already been proved, since to say that a is a co-punctual group is to say that a is contained in . It may be taken that, in general, there are a number of points of which any given event is a member. Such a set of points will fill a "region," but not every region will be the set of points to which some one event belongs. This topic, however, cannot be dealt with until we have discussed space-time order. FOOTNOTES: [59] In this chapter and the next, I owe much to the criticism and suggestions of Mr M. H. A. Newman of St. John's College, Cambridge, who must not, however, be held responsible for their contents; on me contrary, I am convinced that he could construct a much better theory than that which follows. [60] Stetige Mengen, Monatshafte für Mathematik u. Physik., XXXI., 1921, pp. 173-204. [61] Grundzüge der Mengenlehre, Leipzig, 1914. [62] Ib., p. 211. [63] Ib., p. 213. [64] Zum Metrisationsproblem, Math. Annalen 94 (1925), pp. 309-315. [65] He defines a topological space as "normal" when any two non-overlapping closed manifolds and can be separated by two non-overlapping regions , which respectively contain them and have no boundary-points. Ib., p. 310, and Hausdorff, op. cit., p. 215. A "boundary-point" of a collection is one which has a neighbourhood that is not a sub-class of the collection. [Pg 303] CHAPTER XXIX SPACE-TIME ORDER IN the present chapter I shall show how to develop spatio-temporal order, in the sense in which it is assumed by the general theory of relativity, without any apparatus beyond that of the preceding chapter, except a few hypotheses of the sort to be expected in founding analysis situs. The transformations of co-ordinates which are admissible in tensor analysis are not unlimited; they are such, only, as leave relations of neighbourhood unchanged.[66] That is to say, a small displacement in one system of co-ordinates must correspond to a small displacement in any other. This requires that, independently of metrical considerations, the events of the space-time manifold should have certain relations of order. It must be possible, in certain circumstances, to say that is nearer to than to , without presupposing any quantitative measure of distance. It must be possible to construct lines along which there is a definite order, but it must be impossible to distinguish certain lines as "straight." A closed curve will be distinguishable from an open curve, but two open curves will not be distinguishable from each other, provided they have no singularities. Generally, we shall be able to make propositions belonging to analysis situs, at any rate in a sufficiently small region. But propositions about a configuration must, in the geometry we are to construct, be only such as would remain true if the configuration were subjected to any kind of deformation which does not violate continuity. It is this pre-co-ordinate geometry that concerns us in the present chapter. [Pg 304] The order to be introduced is of two sorts, macroscopic and microscopic. We will treat first of the former. Let us observe, to begin with, that events may be divided into zones with respect to a given event. There are first those that are compresent with a given event, then those not compresent with it, but compresent with an event compresent with it, and so on. The th zone will consist of events that can be reached in steps, but not in , "step" being taken as the passage from an event to another which is compresent with it. We will call two points "connected" when there is an event which is a member of both. The passage from event to event by the relation of compresence may be replaced by the passage from point to point by the relation of connection. Thus points also can be collected into zones. If there is a minimum to the size of events, we may assume that it is always possible to pass from one event to another by a finite number of "steps." If so, there