Discoveries and Inventions of the Nineteenth Century

photograph only, there would be formed on the retinæ of his eyes images very nearly corresponding with those which the actual object would produce, and the result would be, if these retinal pictures occupied the proper position on the eyes, that the impression of solidity would be produced, which is called the stereoscopic effect. This may be done without the aid of any instrument, as almost any person may discover after some trials with nothing but a stereoscopic slide, if he can succeed in maintaining the optic axis of his eyes quite parallel. In such a case he will observe the stereoscopic effect by the fusing together, as it were, into one sensation, of the impression received by the right eye from the right photograph, with that received by the left eye from the left photograph. But as each eye will, at the same time, have the photograph intended for the other in the field of view, the observer will be conscious of a non-stereoscopic image on each side of the central stereoscopic one. These outside images are, however, very distracting, for the moment the attention is in the least directed to them, the optic axes converge to the one side or the other, losing their parallelism, and the stereoscopic effect vanishes, because the images no longer fall in the usual positions on the retinæ. It is, in consequence, only after some practice that one succeeds in readily viewing stereoscopic slides in this manner, but the acquirement is a convenient one when a person has rapidly to inspect a number of such slides, for he can see them stereoscopically without putting them in the instrument. Many persons, however, find great difficulty in acquiring this power. In such cases it is well to begin by separating the two photographs by means of a piece of cardboard, covered with black paper on both sides. When this is held in the plane between the eyes, each eye sees only its own photograph, and the observer is not troubled with the two exterior images. After a little practice in this way, the cardboard may usually be dispensed with, and the observer will insensibly have acquired the habit of viewing the slides stereoscopically, without any aid whatever. Fig. 243.—Wheatstone’s Reflecting Stereoscope. Instruments have, however, been contrived which enable one to obtain the desired result without effort; and one form of these is now tolerably 470well known to everybody. The first stereoscope was the invention of Wheatstone. The reflecting stereoscope is represented in Fig. 243, and consists essentially of two plane metallic mirrors inclined to the front of the instrument at angles of 45°, so that in each of them the observer sees only the design which belongs to it. The rays reach the eyes as if they came from images placed in front of the observer; and the two images having the proper differences, produce together the impression of solid objects. Fig. 244. Brewster’s stereoscope—which is far more widely known than Wheatstone’s—has two acute prisms, or, more usually, two portions of a convex lens are cut out, and placed with their margins or thin parts inwards, and they thus produce the same effect as would be obtained by combinations of a prism with a convex lens. Another very common form of the stereoscope has merely two convex lenses. The effect of the convex lenses is to increase the apparent size of the images by diminishing the divergence of the rays emitted by each point, producing the appearance of larger designs seen at a greater distance. The effect of the prism is to give the rays the direction which they would have if they proceeded from an object placed in a position immediately between the two designs, and an additional element by which we estimate distance, namely, the convergence of the optic axes, is made to aid in the illusion, when the rays proceeding from the two different pictures have approximately the inclination that they would have if they emanated from real objects at the place where the image is apparently formed. The box or case in which the lenses or lenticular prisms are placed takes various forms. One of the most common is represented in Fig. 244, but the stand on which it is mounted is not a necessary part of the instrument, although it is sometimes convenient. A handsome form is met with as a square case, enclosing a number of photographic stereoscopic views mounted on an endless chain in such a manner that they are brought successively into view by turning a knob on the outside. When an instrument of this kind is fitted up with a series of the beautiful landscape transparencies, which are produced by certain continental photographers, a more perfect reproduction of the impressions derived from nature, exclusive of colour, cannot be conceived. We seem to be present on the very spots which are so truthfully depicted by the subtile pencil of the sunbeam; we feel that we have but to advance a foot in order to mix with the passengers in the streets of Paris or of Rome, and that a single step will bring us on the mountain-side, or place us on the slippery glacier; at our own fireside we can feel the forty centuries looking down upon us from the heights of those grand Egyptian pyramids, and find ourselves bodily confronted with the mysterious Sphinx, still asking the solution of her enigma. The truth and force with which these stereoscopic photographs reproduce the relief of buildings are such, that when one sees for the first time the real edifice of which he has once examined the stereoscopic images, it no longer strikes him as new or unknown; for he derives 471from the actual scene no impression of form that he has not already received from the image. Fig. 245. But of all subjects of stereoscopic photography the glaciers are, perhaps, those which best show the power of the instrument as far surpassing all other resources of graphic presentation. The most careful painting fails to convey a notion of the strange glimmer of light which fills the clefts of the ice, seen through the transparent substance itself. The simple photograph commonly presents nothing but a confused mass of grey patches; but combine in the stereoscope two such photographs, each formed of nothing but slightly different grey patches, and a surprising effect is at once produced: the masses of ice assume a palpable form, and the beautiful effects of light transmitted or reflected by the translucent solid reveal themselves. Another very beautiful class of subjects for stereoscopic slides is found in those marvellous instantaneous photographs, which seize and fix the images of the waves as they dash upon the shore. Here a scene which has tasked the power of the greatest painter is brought home to us with such force and vividness that we all but hear the wild uproar of the breakers. But for the art of photography the stereoscope would not thus be ready to minister to our enjoyment, for no pictures wrought by man’s handiwork could approach the requisite accuracy which the two stereoscopic pictures must possess. All attempts to produce such pictures by engraving or lithography have failed, except only in the case of linear geometrical designs, such as representations of crystals. A very useful and suggestive application 472of the stereoscope has been made to the illustration of a treatise on solid geometry, where the lines representing the planes, being drawn in proper perspective, the reader by placing a simple stereoscope over the plates sees the planes stand out in relief before him, and the multitude of lines, angles, &c., which in a simple drawing might be distracting even for a practised geometrician, assume a clear and definite form. The difference between the two retinal pictures of objects is so slight, that when the objects are at a little distance, ordinary observation fails to discover it without the aid of special instruments; and an inspection of the pair of photographs in a stereoscopic slide will convince any one that, even in these, close and careful observation is required to perceive the difference. Some of the principles of stereoscopic drawings may be seen exemplified by the pair we give in Fig. 245. With this figure the reader may attempt the experiment of seeing the stereoscopic effect without the stereoscope. When he has succeeded in doing this, or when he fuses the images together by placing a simple stereoscope over the page, he will find the result very singular; for he will receive the impression of a solid crystal of some dark polished substance—black lead, for instance—placed on a surface of the same material. The edges of the solid will appear to have a certain lustre, such as one sees on the edges of a real crystal. The reason of this impression being produced by two drawings, one of which is formed by black lines on a white ground, while the other has white lines on a black ground, is probably due to the circumstance that we very often see in nature the lustrous edges of an object with one eye only. That is, one eye is in the path of the rays which are regularly reflected from the object, while the other is not,—a fact which may be verified in an instant by looking first with one eye and then with the other, at a polished pencil, or similar object, when placed in a certain position. There is a kind of modification of the reflecting stereoscope, known under the name of the pseudoscope, which is highly instructive, as showing how much our notions of the solidity of objects are due to the differences of the retinal images. In the pseudoscope the rays reach the eyes after passing through rectangular prisms in such a manner that objects on the right appear on the left, and objects on the left appear on the right; but the images agree by reason of the symmetry of the reflection, although the image of the objects that without the instrument would be formed in the right eye is, by the action of the prisms, formed in the left eye, and vice versâ. The impressions produced are very curious: convex bodies appear concave—a coin, for example, seems to have the image hollowed out, a pencil appears a cylindrical cavity, a globe seems a concave hemisphere, and objects near at hand appear distant, and so on. These illusions are, however, easily dispelled by any circumstance which brings before the mind our knowledge of the actual forms, and by a mental effort it is possible to perceive the actual forms even with the pseudoscope, and indeed to revert alternately, with the same object, from convexity to concavity. This last effect is very curious, for the object appears to abruptly change its form, becoming alternately hollow and projecting, according as the mind dwells upon the one notion or the other; but the experiment is attended with a feeling of effort, which is very fatiguing to the eyes. Professor Helmholtz has contrived another very curious instrument, depending on the same principles as the stereoscope. He terms it the telestereoscope, and while the effect of the pseudoscope is to reverse the relief of objects, the telestereoscope merely exaggerates this relief; hence 473this instrument is well adapted for making those objects which from their distance present no stereoscopic effect, stand out in relief. The distance between our eyes is not sufficiently great to give us sensibly different views of very distant objects, and what the telestereoscope does is virtually to separate our eyes to a greater distance. Fig. 246 is a horizontal section of the instrument. L and R represent the position of the eyes of the spectator; a, b, are two plane mirrors at 45° to his line of sight; A, B, are two larger plane mirrors, respectively nearly parallel to the former. c d a L and f g b R show the paths of rays from distant objects, and it is obvious