Discoveries and Inventions of the Nineteenth Century

812 Note A—Continuation of Table on page 755, showing the quantity of Coals raised annually in Great Britain. Year. Coal raised in Tons. 1874 126,590,108 1875 133,306,458 1876 134,125,166 1877 134,179,968 1878 132,612,063 1879 133,720,393 1880 146,969,409 1881 154,184,300 1882 156,499,977 1883 163,737,327 1884 160,757,779 1885 159,351,418 1886 157,518,482 1887 162,121,576 1888 169,935,219 1889 176,916,724 1890 181,614,280 1891 185,479,126 1892 181,786,871 1893 164,325,795 1894 188,277,525 Note B—CONSERVATION OF ENERGY.—Page 804. The statement here should have been more explicit, as it has reference to a state of things not to be realised in practice. Like the well-known “first law of motion,” it can neither be demonstrated à priori, nor proved by any direct and simple experiment. The first law of motion asserts that a body in motion, not acted on by any external force, will continue to move in a straight line, and with a uniform velocity. Now we cannot place a body in such a position that it will not be acted upon by some external forces; but the more we lessen the effect of external forces, the more nearly is the motion straight and uniform. Similarly in the case supposed, the intention is to show that the weight carried up is in a position to do just as much work as was done upon it. We must suppose several impracticable but conceivable conditions in order to eliminate considerations which do not concern the theoretical question; we must suppose the cord to be weightless and absolutely devoid of rigidity; the pulley to have no mass or inertia, that is to require no force to set it in motion, and to move without any friction; the air to offer no resistance; and the force of gravity to be uniform throughout the space. Some approximation to these conditions is practicable, as, for example, the pulley might be the lightest possible, and turn on friction wheels, the cord might be the finest silk thread, and so on. But it is not the influence of these external forces we are considering, but only the energy due to the position of the raised weight. Assuming, therefore, the disturbing conditions absolutely eliminated, it is not difficult to see that no downward force or pressure, however small, could be applied for ever so short a time, to the upper weight without setting the system in motion. The motion would be an accelerated one so long as the force was applied, it would become uniform when the force ceased to act; it would have a velocity proportionate to the force. In any case, after a time the descending weight would reach the ground, and for our point of view it is quite immaterial whether the time occupied by the movement were 5 minutes or 5,000 years, for be it observed, time does not enter into the definition of work as it does into that of “horse-power.” Then by pushing the conceived conditions to their limits, we may see that without considering any question of conversion of motion into heat, the raised weight can, in theory at least, give back again the energy spent upon it. 813 INDEX A. Abel, Professor, 746. Accumulators, 530. Adhesion of locomotive, 21. Advantages of present age, 2. Aerolites, 30. Air, 734. Albert Bridge, Saltash, 283. Alizarine, 797. “Alliance” magneto-electric machine, 520. Aluminium, 717. bronze, 719. reduced cost of, 723. American Tract Society building, 78. Ampère’s hypothesis, 750. rule, 492, 549. Amphioxus, 679. Anæsthetics, 731. Anemometer, 656. Angle, limiting, or critical, 399. Aniline, 787. black, 793. blue, 790. green, 791. purple, 788. Anomalous magnetisation, 538. Anthea Cereus, 678. Anthracene, 796, 797. Applegath printing machine, 312. and Cowper, ditto, 308. Apps’s anemometer, 656. induction coil, 506. Aquaria, 675. Arago, 599. Architecture, use of iron in, 72. Argand gas burners, 773. lamps, 595. Armours, ships’, strengths of, 166. Armstrong 110–ton gun, 202. Armstrong’s guns, 192. hydraulic crane, 333. Atoms, 733, 743. Aurora, 504. Australian gold, 688. Austrian torpedoes, 229. “Automobile” competition, 23. Axolotl, 686. B. Bacon, Francis, 799. Balloon, photographic, 628. Basic process (Gilchrist’s), 66. Battery, galvanic, 493. 814Battery, secondary, 530. Baxter House experiments, 58. Bell Rock Lighthouse, 593. Bells, electro-magnetic, 554. Benzol, 783. Bessemer, 26, 56. Channel steamer, 142. converter, 63. iron, 62. process, 64. steel, 56–67. Big Wheels, 81. Bitter Lakes, 261. Blanchard lathe, the, 86. Blast furnace, 40. Blind spot in eye, 460. Blister steel, 54. Blood spectra, 431. Boilers of steam engines, 13. Boring for coals, 361. Bourdon’s pressure gauge, 12. Bourseul, M., 582. Box girders, 280. Breakwater, 258. Breakwaters for Suez Canal, 258. Breech-loading rifles, 182. Brewster, Sir D., 405, 420, 470, 474. Bridge, projected Channel, 296. Bridgewater Canal, 250, 266. Brighton Aquarium, 682. Britannia Bridge, 280. raising tubes, 336. British Aluminium Co., 723. British navy in 1894, 167. Brooklyn Bridge, 303. “Brown Bess,” 178. Browning’s micro-spectroscopes, 434. spectroscope, 422, 432. Brunel, 283. Brunswick rifle, 180. Brush dynamo, 522. Bullet, Greener’s expanding, 182. Lebel, 188. Minié, 180. Bullets, machinery for making, 330. Bunsen and Kirchhoff, 422. and Roscoe, 720. Bunsen’s battery, 496. burner, 421. Bye-products in gas making, 772. C. Cable railways, 126. Cæsium, 426. 815Caissons for Forth Bridge, 293. Calais-Douvres, steamship, 141. Caledonian Canal, 250. Calico printing machines, 321. California, discovery of gold in, 688. Camera, 613. Canal, Caledonian, 250. Manchester Ship, 262. Nicaragua, 274. North Sea, 271. Panama, 272. Suez, 251. Cantilever Bridges, 291. “Cape Horn,” 120. Captain, H.M.S., 141. Carbon transmitter, 590. Carbonic oxide, 44, 48. Carbons for arc lights, 527. Carcel lamp, 597. Carpenter, Dr. W. B., 462. Carriages, railway, 111. for rock drills, 358. Carriers in pneumatic tubes, 344. Cars, Pullman, 112. Castalia, steamship, 139. Cast-iron, composition of, 43. Cast steel, 54. Catoptric lighthouse apparatus, 599. Cause of light and colour, 408. Celestial chemistry and physics, 436. Celluloid, 622. Central Telegraph Office, London, 574. Centres of gravity and buoyancy, 149. Centrifugal force, 107. Chains, 330. Chain-testing machine, 329. Channel Bridge (projected), 296. steamers, 142. Channel Tunnel, 364. Chassepot rifle, 182. Chemical action of light, 608. equations, 734. nomenclature, 782. symbols, 733. work of electricity, 497. Chloroform, 608. Chromatic aberration of eye, 462. Chromo-lithography, 638. Chronograph} Chronoscope} electric, 656. Cincinnati Suspension Bridge, 287. City of Rome, steamship, 139. Clark’s hydraulic lift graving dock, 331. Clarke’s magneto-electric machine, 509. Clay process, stereotyping by, 633. Clerk Maxwell’s theory of light, 541. “Clermont,” the, 147. Clifton Suspension Bridge, near Bristol, 285. Niagara, 287. Coal, 751. Coal in Kent, 371. Coal-gas, 764. Coal-tar colours, 781. Code, telegraphic, of American War Department, 528. Morse’s, 560. Wheatstone’s dot, 565. Cold-short iron, 62. Colesberg, 703. Collodion process, 618. Colour printing, 639. Colours not in the objects, 413. photography of, 628. Comets, spectra of, 444. 816Composition rollers, 406. Condie’s steam-hammer, 28. Copying principle, 86. Cordite, 748. Corona, 438. Cort’s puddling furnace, 45. Couple, mechanical, 149. Cramp gauge, 129. Croll, on Stellar Evolution, 810. Crookes, 507. Crystal Palace, an example of use of iron in architecture, 72. Crystal Palace, 72. Aquarium, 677. Crystalline lens, 455. Cup and cone, 49. Current, electric, 492. induced, 502. measurement of, 536. Currents in submarine cables, 579. D. Daguerre, 609. Daguerreotype, 610. Daimler motor, 24. Dallmeyer, 617. Daniell’s battery, 495. De Beers Mines, 707. Delphi, oracle at, 739. Dial telegraphs, 566. Diamond cutting, 700. Diamond, qualities of the, 698. rock drill, 359. Diamondiferous, 703. Diamonds, 696. use of, 701. Dioptric lighthouse apparatus, 600. Discoveries, progressive, 802. Dissipation of energy, 808. Distinct vision, 458. D lines of sodium spectrum, 425, 441. Dolls, talking, 674. Domestic consumption of coal, 755, 756. Double refraction and polarization, 399. Dredges, Suez Canal, 255. Drilling machine, 90. Dry digging, 702. Duboscq’s electric lamp, 497. Du Moncel, 590. Dynamical electricity, 490. Dynamo, Siemens’, 522. Brush, 522. E. Earl’s Court, Great Wheel at, 83. Earth’s circuit, 574. Ebonite, 728. Eccentric, 9. Eclipse of sun, 438. Eddystone lighthouse, 594. Edison, 669, 670, 674. Edison’s kinetoscope, 478. Eiffel Tower, the, 72. Electric lighting and electric power, 519. Electric current, 790. furnace, 722. Electric induction, 488. launch, 534. light, cost of, 43. 817Electric light in lighthouses, 515. telegraph, 598. torpedo, 547. tramway, 532. welding, 537. Electricity, 481. Electricity, the new, 538. Electrode, 497. Electro-magnet, 500. Electromotive force, 494. Electro-plating, 499, 518. Electrotyping, 634. Elementary bodies, 716. Elementary phenomena of magnetism and electricity, 483. Elswick 4·7–in. gun, 206. guns, 194. Energy, 806. Ether, 735. the luminiferous, 408. Exhaustion of coal, 755, 756, 757. Expansive working of steam, 8, 17. Explosion by concussion, 745. of locomotive, 21. of torpedoes, 229. Explosives, 225, 740. different effects of, 748. names and classes of, 750. Eye, the, 451. dimensions of some parts of, 462. Eye not optically perfect, 462. Eyeballs, muscles of, 461. F. Fairbairn, Sir W., 280. Faraday, 506, 508, 735. ventilating gas-burner, 773. Faure’s accumulator, 530. Fellahs, 255. Ferris wheel, Chicago, 81. Field telegraphs, 555. Fire-arms, 169. Fish-plates, 105. Fizeau, 386. Floating matter in air, 383. Fluids, electric, 487. Fly-wheels, 7. Force, conservation of, 804. electromotive, 494. Forth Bridge, the, 311. Foucault, 387. Fovea centralis, 456, 457. Fraser-Woolwich guns, 195. Fraunhofer’s lines, 420, 436. Fresnel’s mirrors, 409. measurement of velocity of light, 600. Fribourg Suspension Bridge, 286. Froment’s dial telegraph, 567. Furnace, electric, 322. G. Galvanic batteries, 493, 494. Galvanometer, 493. mirror, 570. Gas engine, 25. governor, 769. holder, 766. making apparatus, 765. meters, 775. pressure, 769. retorts, 766. 818Gases of blast furnace, 49. Gatling battery gun, or mitrailleur, 219. Gauge, broad and narrow, 106. Bourdon’s pressure, 12. Geissler’s tubes, 505. Ghost, Pepper’s, 392. Giffard’s injector, 11. Girder bridges, 280. Glass, strains in, 407. Glatton, H. M. S., 161. Glynde, electric railway, 534. Gold, 686. Gold and diamonds, 687. Gold-mining operations, 690. Goodyear, Mr., 727. Governor of steam engines, 6. Gower Street Station, 114. Gramme magneto-electric machine, the, 511. Graphophone, 672. Graphotype, 644. Gray, 590. Great Brooklyn Bridge, 303. Great Eastern, 133, 152, 330, 465, 578. Greatest Discovery of the Age, 801. Greener’s expanding bullet, 182. Grove, Sir W. R., 804. Grove’s battery, 495. Gun, 32–pounder, 191. 68–pounder, 192. 35–ton, 201. 81–ton, 201. 100–ton, 201. 110–ton, 202. Elswick 4·7–in., 206. Maxim, 225. Moncrieff, 208. Nordenfelt, 223. Gun-cotton, 747. torpedoes, 233. Gunpowder, 734. Guns, Armstrong’s, 192. Elswick, 194. Fraser-Woolwich, 195. Krupp’s, 214. quick-firing, 206. submarine, 240. Gutta-percha, 728. H. Half-tone process, 629. Hancock, Mr. Charles, 729. Mr. Thomas, 725. Harvey’s torpedoes, 234. Heat produced by electric current, 502. Heat spectrum, 613. Heating by gas, 776. Helmholtz, 462, 464, 472, 474. Henry, on Leyden jar discharge, 538. Hercules, H.M.S., 150. Hertz, Professor, 541. Hippocampus, 664. Hoe’s printing machines, 316, 318. Holmes’ magneto-electric machine, 520. Holophotal light, 604. Holyhead and Kingston steamers, 136. Horseless carriages (Automobiles), 23. Horse-power, 10. Hot-blast, 48. Hotchkiss quick-firing guns, 208. Hough’s metereograph, 654. Howitzers, 213. Hudson River steam navigation, 147. 819Hughes’ printing telegraph, 560. microphone, 590. Hydraulic power, 324. I. Iceland spar, 399. Illuminating power of gas, 774. Illusion by movement of eye, 475. by persistence of vision, 476. stage, 290. Images formed by lenses, 399, 616. Impact theory of Stellar Evolution, 718. Incandescent electric light, 528. Incandescent gas-burners, 777. Inclined railways, 125. Inconstant, H.M.S., 152. India-rubber, 724. India-rubber and gutta-percha, 724. Indicator, 9. Induced currents, 502. Induction coils, 503. Injector, Giffard’s, 11. Instantaneous photography, 623. Introduction, 1. Iron, 29. Iron bridges, 276. Iron in architecture, 72. Iron, cast, 40. chemical changes of, 34. lighthouses, 596. meteoric, 32. ores, 39. pig, 40. ships, 133. smelting, 39. utility of, 30. wrought, 47. Ismaïlia, 260. J. Jablochkoff’s electric candle, 525. Jackson, 551. Jacobi, 531. Jamin’s magnet, 513. Johannesburg, 694. Joule, 804, 805. Joy’s valve gear, 20. Jupiter, 384. K. Kaleidoscope, 389. Karoos, 705. Kimberley, 705. Kinetographic theatre, 479. Kinetoscope, 478. Kirchhoff, 422. Klondyke, 692. König or Kaiser Wilhelm, ironclad, 164. König’s printing machine, 308. Krupp’s guns, 214. steel, 55. works, 56. L. Lake Timsah, 260. Lathe at Woolwich, 198. 820Lathe, Blanchard, 96. screw-cutting, 87. Lap of slide-valve, 9. Lebel rifle, 188. Lens, formation of image by, 616. in steps, 600. photographic, 616. Lepidosiren, 685. Letterpress printing, 306. Leyden jar, 490. discharge, 538. Light, 380. electric, 497. invisible, 383. Lighthouses, 593. Limiting angle, 399. Link motion, 16. Linotype, the, 645. Lithium, 425. Lithography, 636. Liverpool and Manchester Railway, 14. Lock-gates, 267. Locks in Manchester Ship Canal, 264, 266. Locomotive, the, 14. balancing of, 20. compound, 18. Lodge, Professor O., 540. M. Machine-guns, 218. Madder, 796. Magazine rifles, 187. Magnesium, 720. Magnetic field, 537. Magnetism produced by current, 500. Magneto-electric machines, 496, 507, 508. Magneto-electricity, 506. Mallet’s Mortars, 212. Malus, 405. Manchester Ship Canal, 262. Manganese, 43. Manhattan Life Insurance buildings, 78. Mannlicher rifle, 187, 189. Manufacturing v. making, 85. Map, Channel Tunnel, 364. Manchester Ship Canal, 263. North Sea Canal, 271. Pacific Railway, 117. St. Gothard Railway, 372. Suez Canal, 256. Tower Bridge, etc., 299. Marconi, 546. Martini-Henry rifle, 184. Mary Powell, the, 148. Matter indestructible, 576. Mauser rifle, 187, 188. Maxim gun, 225. Measuring machines, 88. Mélinite, 748. Menai Straits bridges, 280, 284. Meteoric iron, 32. Meteorites, 30. Meteorology, importance of, 664. Metereographs, 654. Meters, gas, 775. Metropolitan Railway, the, 114. Microphone, 481. Minié bullet, 180. Mineral combustibles, 751. Mines, submarine, 241. Mirror, galvanometer, 570. Mirrors, plane, 388. 821Mirrors, illusions, 391–395. Mitrailleur, 218. Molecules, 733, 743. Monarch, H.M.S., 156. Moncrieff’s gun carriages, 208. Mont Cenis Tunnel, 351. Montigny mitrailleur, 222. Morse’s code, 560. instruments, 558. plate, 562. telegraphic line, 556. transmitting key, 561. Mortar, Mallet’s, 212. Mount Washington Inclined Railway, 125. Musical sound, 666. N. Naphthaline, 669. Napier’s platen machine, 321. Nasmyth’s steam hammer, 26. Nature knowledge, 1. printing, 640. Nebulæ, 626. Needle telegraphs, 553. Negretti and Zambra’s recording thermometer, 659. New metals, 714. New York, the, 148. Newton’s prism experiment, 418. Niagara Suspension Bridge, 287. Falls, 537. Nicaragua Canal, 274. Nichol’s prism, 403. Niepce, J. N., 609. de Saint-Victor, 611, 615. Nitro-benzol, 784. Nitrogen and oxygen compounds, 732. Nitro-glycerine, 734. Nordenfelt gun, 223. North Sea Canal, 271. Note A—Production of coal, 812. Note B—Conservation of energy, 812. O. Œrsted’s experiments, 548. Oil springs, 760. Oldbury, manufacture of aluminium, 722. Ophthalmoscope, 423. Optical apparatus of lighthouses, 598. Orders of lighthouse apparatus, 602. Organic bodies, 798. Oscillating engines, 14 P. Pacific Railway, the, 116. Paddle-wheels, 130. Page, Mr., 532. Panama Canal, 272. Papier-maché stereotype process, 633. Paraffin, 761. oils, 762, 763. Parallel motion, 8. Paris Exhibition, buildings of, 76. Pascal’s principle, 325. Pattern printing, 321. Pepper, J. H., 392, 393, 505. Percussion cap, 180. Petroleum, 757. Phenakistiscope, 476. 822Phenomena of light, some, 382. Phonautograph, 666. Phonograph, 665. Photographic camera, 615. Photography, 607. Photography, celestial, 636. in colours, 614, 630. in the dark, 613. X-Ray, 447. Photolithography, 644. Photozincography, 644. Pig iron, 40. Planes, Whitworth’s, 94. Planets, photographs of, 636. Planing machines, 92. Plants in coal measures, 753. Plaster of Paris, stereotype process, 633. Pneumatic dispatch, 340. force, 333. Pniel, 701. Points, railway, 108. Polariscope, 405. Polarizer, 403. Polytechnic institution, Regent Street, 505. Portable engines, 24. Portable telegraphic instruments, 556. Portrait, Davy, 714. Helmholtz, 452. Joule, 789. Kirchhoff, 416. Lesseps, 249. Morse, 547. Senefelder, 632. Simpson, 731. Tesla, 572. Thomson, 481. Watt, 3. Whitworth, 85. Port Saïd, 257. Post-office railway van, 111. Potassium, 715. Powder, smokeless, 748. Power, horse, 10. hydraulic, 324. of steam engine, 9. of locomotive, 21. Powers, mechanical, 32. Pressure gauge, 12. transmitted in fluids, 324. Principle, the copying, 86. of the cantilever, 291. Printing machines, 305. processes, 632. telegraphs, 570. Process blocks, 629. Progress of mankind, 2. Projectiles, 166. air’s resistance to, 175. deviation, 199. long range of Whitworth, 193. speed of, measured, 659. trajectory of, 174. Propagation of sound, 668. Prospecting, 361. Proteus anguinus, 684. the modern, 807. Pseudoscope, 472. Puddling furnace, 45. Q. Queensferry, 292. Quick-firing guns, 206. Hotchkiss, 208. R. 823Railways, 101. Great Western, 106. Metropolitan, 114. Midland, 112. London and Manchester, 102, 124. London and Woolwich, 103. Pacific, 116. St. Gothard, 371. Stockton and Darlington, 101. Randt, the, 694. Rangoon petroleum, 759. Rays polarized, 401. Réaumur’s steel, 67. Recoil, 172. Recording instruments, 653. Red-short iron, 62. Reflection of light, 388. Reflection in water, 396. total, 399. Refraction, 397. double, 399. Regulators for electric lamps, 523. Reiss, 583. Reliance building, the, 78. Resistance, electrical, 494. Resonance, electric, 540, 541. Retina, 456. Reverberatory furnace, 45. Rifle, Brunswick, 180. Chassepot, 182. Lebel, 188. Lee, 188. Mannlicher, 187, 189. Martini-Henry, 184. magazine, 187. Mauser, 187, 188. military, 178. Minié, 181. Snider Enfield, 184. Vetterli, 189. Whitworth, 182. Rifled cannon, 190. Rifles, breech-loading, 182. reduction of bores of, 189. Rifling, 171. guns, 199. Righi, Professor, 541. Rigi, railways ascending the, 126. River steamboats, 144. Rock boring, 349. “Rocket,” 14. Rock-drilling machines, 355. Roentgen’s X-Rays, 445. Rolling iron, 71. Ronald’s telegraph, 548. Roscoe, 425, 437, 444. and Bunsen, 664. Royal Gun Factory, Woolwich, 27. Ruete’s ophthalmoscope, 466. Ruhmkorff’s coil, 730. S. Saint Paul building, the, 78. Saltash Bridge, 283. San Francisco, 123. Sand, properties of, 253. Saw, circular, 100. 824Sawing machines, 98. Saturn, 440. Schilling’s telegraph, 549. Science, benefits of, 1. Science and useful arts, 2. Scott’s phonautograph, 669. Screw, 86. cutting lathe, 87. dies and taps, 86. propeller, 116, 117. Sea anemones, 679. horses, 684. Secondary