Discoveries and Inventions of the Nineteenth Century

to feed the furnaces necessary in so many of the arts—such as in the manufacturing of glass, porcelain, salt, chemicals, &c. The quantity of coal raised in Great Britain was not accurately known until 1854, when it was ordered that a register should be kept, and an annual return made. The following figures, in round numbers, are the returns published up to 1873. The table is continued in Note A. Year. Coal raised, in Tons. 1854 64,661,000 1855 64,453,000 1856 66,645,000 1857 65,395,000 1858 65,008,000 1859 71,979,000 1860 83,208,000 1861 85,635,000 1862 83,638,000 1863 88,292,000 1864 92,787,000 1865 98,150,000 1866 101,630,000 1867 104,500,000 1868 103,141,000 1869 107,427,000 1870 110,289,000 1871 117,352,000 1872 123,497,000 1873 127,017,000 The first return showed our annual produce to be 64,661,000 tons. The amount did not greatly vary until 1859, when there was an increased production of nearly seven millions of tons; in 1860 a further increase of eleven millions of tons more. Since then the quantity annually raised has been increasing. Comparing the quantity which has been raised in any year after 1863 with that raised ten years before, we see that the increase in ten years is nearly half as much again; or, that at the present rate of increase the amount annually raised doubles itself at least every twenty years. Now, the question arises, How long can this go on? However great may be the store of coal, it must sooner or later come to an end. Is it possible to calculate how long our coals will last? and what are the results of such calculations? These calculations have been made; but there are great discrepancies in the results, for the estimates of the amount of available coal still remaining vary greatly, and different views are held regarding the rate of consumption in the future. A very liberal estimate, by an excellent authority, of the quantity of coal remaining under British soil, makes it 147,000 millions of tons. With a consumption stationary at the present rate, this will last 1,200 years; with an increase of consumption of 3,000,000 tons a year, 276 years; but if the consumption continues to increase in the same geometrical ratio it has hitherto followed, the supply will scarcely last 100 years. It cannot be conceived, however, that this last will be the real case, for the increasing depth to which it will be necessary to go will soon cause a great increase in the cost, and thus effectually check the consumption. Great Britain will, however, be compelled to retire from the coal trade altogether, by the cheaper supplies which other countries will yield, long before the absolute exhaustion of her own coal-fields. It is calculated that the coal-fields of North America contain thirteen times as much as those of all Europe put together. Coal is also found 756abundantly in India, China, Borneo, Eastern Australia, and South Africa; and it is believed that these stores will supply the world for many thousand years. Fig. 344.—The Fireside. Seeing, then, that our supply of coal has a limit, and that at the present increasing rate of consumption, the chief source of the wealth of Great Britain must necessarily be exhausted in a few more centuries, it behoves us to turn our mineral treasures to the best account, and to adopt every possible means of obtaining from our coal its whole available heat and force. The amount of avoidable waste of which we are guilty in the consumption of coal is enormous. This is especially the case in its domestic use, where probably nineteen-twentieths of the heat produced is absolutely thrown away—sent off from the earth to warm the stars. In England people look upon the wide open fireplace as the image and type of home comfort. No doubt there are, from long use and habit, many pleasing associations which cluster round the domestic hearth; but we, to whom it is given to “look before and after,” must think what it takes to feed that wide-throated chimney. All but a very small fraction of the heat thus escapes, and is lost to man and the world for ever; and surely we shall deserve the curses of our descendants if we continue recklessly to throw away a treasure which, unlike the oil in the widow’s cruse, is never renewed—for there is no contemporaneous formation of coal. Thanks to the enhanced price of coal during the last few years, some attention has been directed to contrivances 757for the economical consumption of coal in its domestic, as well as in its manufacturing, applications. A time, however, will sooner or later come, when the whole available coal shall have been consumed. What will then be the fuel of the engines, and steamboats, and locomotives of the future? The reader may think that then it will only be necessary to burn wood. But wood is already being consumed from the face of the earth much more rapidly than it is produced. How, then, can it be available when coal fails? The truth is, we are now consuming not merely the wood which the sun-rays are building up in our own time, but in hewing down the forests we are using the sun-work of a century, while in coal we have the forests of untold ages at our disposal—the accumulated combustible capital stored up during an immense period of the earth’s existence. Upon this stored-up capital we are now living, our current receipts of sun-force being wholly inadequate to meet our expenditure. The coal is the sun-force of former ages; and it is from this we are now deriving the energy which performs most of our work. George Stephenson long ago declared that his locomotives were driven by sunshine—by the sunshine of former ages bottled up in the coal. And he was right. The mechanical energy of our steam engines, and the chemical energy of our blast furnaces, are derived from the combustion of vegetable matter, in which the heat and light of the sun—our present sun or that of the coal ages—are in some way stored up. The burning of wood or coal is, chemically, the reverse action to that performed by the sunlight: by the former carbon and oxygen are united, by the latter they are separated. We foresee, then, a future period—however distant may be that future—in which the world’s capital shall have been exhausted, and the energies which are now employed in doing the world’s work will no longer be available. But the reader will perhaps think that by improvements in the steam engine, and in other ways, means will be found of getting more and more work out of coal. It is true that we obtain from coal only a fraction of its available energy; but the whole work which could, by any possible process, be done by the combustion of coal is definite and limited, although its amount is large. A pound of coal burnt in one minute sets free an amount of energy which would, if it could all be made available, do as much as 300 horses working in the same time. But, again, the reader may think, even if at some distant future the supplies of fuel for the steam engines of our remote posterity should fail, that before that time some other form of force than steam or heat engines will have been discovered—some application of electricity, for example. Now, it will appear, from principles which will be discussed in a subsequent article, that not only is there no probability of such a discovery, but that now, when the relations of the whole available energies of the globe have been traced and defined, Science can find no ground for admitting such a possibility under the present condition of the universe. PETROLEUM. When coal is heated in closed vessels, there are given off, as we shall presently see, a number of gaseous and volatile products—many being compounds of carbon and hydrogen—which condense to liquids or 758solids at ordinary temperatures. Carbon is by far the largest constituent of coal, which commonly contains only about 10 per cent. of other substances, although the proportions vary very widely. Another important constituent of coal is its hydrogen, and the value of coal as a source of heat depends almost entirely upon the carbon and hydrogen it contains. Carbon is one of the most remarkable of all the elements of the globe for its power of entering into an enormous number of compounds. Thus, for example, the compounds of carbon with only hydrogen are innumerable; but they are all definite, and their composition is expressible by the admirable system of chemical symbols, of which the reader has now, it is hoped, some definite notion. Perhaps these hydro-carbons are among the best evidences which could be adduced that modern science has obtained a grasp of certain conceptions which have a real correspondence with the actual facts of nature, even as regards the intimate constitution of matter. This is not the place to enter into a complete exposition of this subject. We may, however, invite the reader’s attention to a few simple facts. A very large number of compounds of carbon and hydrogen are known. If the percentage compositions of these be compared together, it is only the eye of a most expert arithmetician which can detect any relation between the proportions of the constituents in the various compounds. The chemist, however, by associating such of these compounds as resemble each other in their general properties, finds that they can be arranged in series, in which the composition is accurately expressed by multiples of the proportions: C = 12, H = 1. And not only so, the different series themselves form a series of series, having a simple relation to each other. Thus, confining ourselves to some of the known hydro-carbons, we have the following: A B C D E F C H4 C H2 C2H6 C2H4 C2H2 C3H8 C3H6 C3H4 C3H2 C4H10 C4H8 C4H6 C4H4 C4H2 C5H12 C5H10 C5H8 C5H6 C5H4 C5H2 C6H14 C6H12 C6H10 C6H8 C6H6 C6H4 &c. &c. &c. &c. &c. &c. CnH2n + 2 CnH2n CnH2n – 2 CnH2n – 4 CnH2n – 6 CnH2n – 8 This table might be indefinitely extended, but enough is given to enable the intelligent reader to discover the laws connecting these formulæ. The series headed B, it will be observed, have all the same percentage composition. Why, then, one formula rather than another? The answer to this question is the statement of a theoretical law upon which the whole science of modern chemistry is based; for it has the same relation to that science as gravitation has to astronomy. It is a matter of fact that all gases, whatever their chemical nature, expand alike with the same application of heat, and all obey the same law, which connects volumes and pressures. These are very remarkable uniformities, for gases in this respect exhibit the most decided contrast to liquids and solids. The volume of each solid and of each liquid has its own special relations to temperature and pressure: here 759there is endless diversity. The volumes of all gases have one and the same relation to temperature and pressure: here there is absolute uniformity. As an explanation of these and other facts relating to gases, Amedeo Avogadro, in 1811, put forward this hypothesis—Equal volumes of all gases, under like circumstances of temperature and pressure, contain the same number of molecules. This hypothesis was revived by Ampère a few years later, and sometimes is called his. A necessary consequence of this law is that the weights of the molecules of gases are proportional to their densities or specific gravities. Hence when the percentage composition of a hydro-carbon has been determined, by burning or oxidizing it in such a manner as to obtain and weigh the products, carbonic acid and water, the next thing the chemist does is to obtain the weight of a volume of the gas. The number of times this exceeds the weight of hydrogen gas, under the same conditions, expresses how many times the molecule is heavier than the hydrogen molecule. Now, the chemist’s unit of weight in these inquiries is the weight of a single atom of hydrogen; and, as there are grounds for believing that the molecule of hydrogen consists of two atoms of that substance, its weight = 2. Now, if the molecule of marsh gas, the first hydro-carbon in the above list, has the composition assigned, it will be 12 + 4 = 16 times heavier than the atom of hydrogen, and 162 = 8 times heavier than the molecule of