Discoveries and Inventions of the Nineteenth Century

which these stereoscopic photographs reproduce the relief of buildings are such, that when one sees for the first time the real edifice of which he has once examined the stereoscopic images, it no longer strikes him as new or unknown; for he derives 471from the actual scene no impression of form that he has not already received from the image. Fig. 245. But of all subjects of stereoscopic photography the glaciers are, perhaps, those which best show the power of the instrument as far surpassing all other resources of graphic presentation. The most careful painting fails to convey a notion of the strange glimmer of light which fills the clefts of the ice, seen through the transparent substance itself. The simple photograph commonly presents nothing but a confused mass of grey patches; but combine in the stereoscope two such photographs, each formed of nothing but slightly different grey patches, and a surprising effect is at once produced: the masses of ice assume a palpable form, and the beautiful effects of light transmitted or reflected by the translucent solid reveal themselves. Another very beautiful class of subjects for stereoscopic slides is found in those marvellous instantaneous photographs, which seize and fix the images of the waves as they dash upon the shore. Here a scene which has tasked the power of the greatest painter is brought home to us with such force and vividness that we all but hear the wild uproar of the breakers. But for the art of photography the stereoscope would not thus be ready to minister to our enjoyment, for no pictures wrought by man’s handiwork could approach the requisite accuracy which the two stereoscopic pictures must possess. All attempts to produce such pictures by engraving or lithography have failed, except only in the case of linear geometrical designs, such as representations of crystals. A very useful and suggestive application 472of the stereoscope has been made to the illustration of a treatise on solid geometry, where the lines representing the planes, being drawn in proper perspective, the reader by placing a simple stereoscope over the plates sees the planes stand out in relief before him, and the multitude of lines, angles, &c., which in a simple drawing might be distracting even for a practised geometrician, assume a clear and definite form. The difference between the two retinal pictures of objects is so slight, that when the objects are at a little distance, ordinary observation fails to discover it without the aid of special instruments; and an inspection of the pair of photographs in a stereoscopic slide will convince any one that, even in these, close and careful observation is required to perceive the difference. Some of the principles of stereoscopic drawings may be seen exemplified by the pair we give in Fig. 245. With this figure the reader may attempt the experiment of seeing the stereoscopic effect without the stereoscope. When he has succeeded in doing this, or when he fuses the images together by placing a simple stereoscope over the page, he will find the result very singular; for he will receive the impression of a solid crystal of some dark polished substance—black lead, for instance—placed on a surface of the same material. The edges of the solid will appear to have a certain lustre, such as one sees on the edges of a real crystal. The reason of this impression being produced by two drawings, one of which is formed by black lines on a white ground, while the other has white lines on a black ground, is probably due to the circumstance that we very often see in nature the lustrous edges of an object with one eye only. That is, one eye is in the path of the rays which are regularly reflected from the object, while the other is not,—a fact which may be verified in an instant by looking first with one eye and then with the other, at a polished pencil, or similar object, when placed in a certain position. There is a kind of modification of the reflecting stereoscope, known under the name of the pseudoscope, which is highly instructive, as showing how much our notions of the solidity of objects are due to the differences of the retinal images. In the pseudoscope the rays reach the eyes after passing through rectangular prisms in such a manner that objects on the right appear on the left, and objects on the left appear on the right; but the images agree by reason of the symmetry of the reflection, although the image of the objects that without the instrument would be formed in the right eye is, by the action of the prisms, formed in the left eye, and vice versâ. The impressions produced are very curious: convex bodies appear concave—a coin, for example, seems to have the image hollowed out, a pencil appears a cylindrical cavity, a globe seems a concave hemisphere, and objects near at hand appear distant, and so on. These illusions are, however, easily dispelled by any circumstance which brings before the mind our knowledge of the actual forms, and by a mental effort it is possible to perceive the actual forms even with the pseudoscope, and indeed to revert alternately, with the same object, from convexity to concavity. This last effect is very curious, for the object appears to abruptly change its form, becoming alternately hollow and projecting, according as the mind dwells upon the one notion or the other; but the experiment is attended with a feeling of effort, which is very fatiguing to the eyes. Professor Helmholtz has contrived another very curious instrument, depending on the same principles as the stereoscope. He terms it the telestereoscope, and while the effect of the pseudoscope is to reverse the relief of objects, the telestereoscope merely exaggerates this relief; hence 473this instrument is well adapted for making those objects which from their distance present no stereoscopic effect, stand out in relief. The distance between our eyes is not sufficiently great to give us sensibly different views of very distant objects, and what the telestereoscope does is virtually to separate our eyes to a greater distance. Fig. 246 is a horizontal section of the instrument. L and R represent the position of the eyes of the spectator; a, b, are two plane mirrors at 45° to his line of sight; A, B, are two larger plane mirrors, respectively nearly parallel to the former. c d a L and f g b R show the paths of rays from distant objects, and it is obvious that the right eye will obtain a view of the objects identical with that which would be presented to an eye at R´, while the left eye has similarly the picture of the objects as seen from the point L´. The four mirrors are mounted in a box, and means are provided for adjusting the positions of the larger mirrors, as may be required. With this instrument the distant objects in a landscape—a range of mountains, for example—which present to the naked eye little or no appearance of relief, have their projections and hollows revealed in the most curious manner. Fig. 246.—The Telestereoscope. It is upon a similar principle that stereoscopic views of some of the celestial bodies have been obtained. Admirable stereoscopic slides of the moon have been produced by photographing her at different times, when the illumination of the surface is the same, but when, in consequence of her libration, somewhat different views of our satellite are presented to us. Two such photographs, properly combined in the stereoscope, give not only the spherical form in full relief, but all the details of the surface: the mountains, craters, valleys, and plains are seen in their true relative projection. The telestereoscope may be inverted, so to speak, and its effect reversed; for an arrangement of mirrors similarly disposed, but on such a scale as will permit the eyes to be respectively in the lines c d and f g, would reflect from objects in the direction L R rays which would have but little of the difference of direction to which the stereoscopic effect is due. Hence solid objects viewed with such an instrument appear exactly like flat pictures, the effect being far more marked than in simply viewing them with one eye. An ingenious method of exhibiting a stereoscopic effect to an audience 474has been contrived by Rollmann. He draws on a black ground two linear stereoscopic designs—that for the left eye with red lines, that for the right eye with blue. Each individual in the audience is provided with a piece of blue glass and a piece of red: he places the red glass before the left eye, the blue glass before the right: each eye thus receives only the picture intended for it, for the blue lines cannot be seen through the red glass, or the red lines through the blue glass. The diagrams may, of course, be projected on a screen by a magic lantern, in which case the circumstances are even more favourable. Duboscq has arranged a kind of opera-glass, so that a person may view appropriate designs on the large scale, and arrangements have been also contrived by which the stereoscopic effect may be seen in moving figures. Every student of this interesting subject should examine a few stereoscopic images produced by simple lines representing geometrical figures, or the photographs of the model of a crystal, as these exhibit in the most striking manner the conditions requisite for the production of stereoscopic effects. A person having a little skill in perspective and geometry might construct the two stereoscopic images of a body defined by straight lines, but the drawings must be executed with extreme exactitude, for the least deviation would produce the most marked effect in the stereoscopic appearance. The production of stereoscopic photographs now forms a considerable branch of industrial art. At first, these photographs were made by taking the two different views with the same camera at two operations. But there were difficulties in obtaining uniformity of depth in the impressions, and the change in the shadows produced by the earth’s rotation showed itself—although the interval between the two exposures might not exceed three or four minutes. The increased shadows in such cases show themselves in the stereoscope, like dark screens suspended in the air. It was Sir David Brewster who, in 1849, first proposed the plan now universally adopted, of producing the views simultaneously by twin cameras forming their images on different parts of the same sensitive plate, the centres of the lenses being placed at the same distance apart as a man’s eyes, that is, from 2½ to 3 in. This is, of course, the only manner in which instantaneous views can be secured. Helmholtz, however, advocates the photographs of remote objects being taken at a much greater distance apart, for they otherwise present little appearance of relief. By selecting from an assortment of slides, two views of the Wetterhorn, taken from different points in the Grindelwald valley, and combining these in the stereoscope, he found that a far more distinct idea of the modelling of the mountain could be thus obtained than even a spectator of the actual scene would receive by viewing the mountain from any one point. Such a mode of combining the photographs would produce in the stereoscope the same effect as the telestereoscope would in the landscape, but the effect would be caused to a proportionately far higher degree. The date of Wheatstone’s first publication regarding the stereoscope was 1833; but a complete description and theory of the instrument was not published until five years afterwards. Brewster first made public, in 1843, his invention of the stereoscope with lenses, which is now so familiar to us, and few scientific instruments have become so quickly and extensively popular; certainly no other simple and inexpensive instrument has contributed so largely to the amusement and instruction of our domestic circles. And, to the philosopher who studies the