Politics: A Treatise on Government

We are now to enter into an inquiry concerning harmony and rhythm; whether all sorts of these are to be employed in education, or whether some peculiar ones are to be selected; and also whether we should give the same directions to those who are engaged in music as part of education, or whether there is something different from these two. Now, as all music consists in melody and rhythm, we ought not to be unacquainted with the power which each of these has in education; and whether we should rather choose music in which melody prevails, or rhythm: but when I consider how many things have been well written upon these subjects, not only by some musicians of the present age, but also by some philosophers who are perfectly skilled in that part of music which belongs to education; we will refer those who desire a very particular knowledge therein to those writers, and shall only treat of it in general terms, without descending to particulars. Melody is divided by some philosophers, whose notions we approve of, into moral, practical, and that which fills the mind with enthusiasm: they also allot to each of these a particular kind of harmony which naturally corresponds therewith: and we say that music should not be applied to one purpose only, but many; both for instruction and purifying the soul (now I use the word purifying at present without any explanation, but shall speak more at large of it in my Poetics); and, in the third place, as an agreeable manner of spending the time and a relaxation from the uneasiness of the mind. [1342a] It is evident that all harmonies are to be used; but not for all purposes; but the most moral in education: but to please the ear, when others play, the most active and enthusiastic; for that passion which is to be found very strong in some souls is to be met with also in all; but the difference in different persons consists in its being in a less or greater degree, as pity, fear, and enthusiasm also; which latter is so powerful in some as to overpower the soul: and yet we see those persons, by the application of sacred music to soothe their mind, rendered as sedate and composed as if they had employed the art of the physician: and this must necessarily happen to the compassionate, the fearful, and all those who are subdued by their passions: nay, all persons, as far as they are affected with those passions, admit of the same cure, and are restored to tranquillity with pleasure. In the same manner, all music which has the power of purifying the soul affords a harmless pleasure to man. Such, therefore, should be the harmony and such the music which those who contend with each other in the theatre should exhibit: but as the audience is composed of two sorts of people, the free and the well-instructed, the rude the mean mechanics, and hired servants, and a long collection of the like, there must be some music and some spectacles to please and soothe them; for as their minds are as it were perverted from their natural habits, so also is there an unnatural harmony, and overcharged music which is accommodated to their taste: but what is according to nature gives pleasure to every one, therefore those who are to contend upon the theatre should be allowed to use this species of music. But in education ethic melody and ethic harmony should be used, which is the Doric, as we have already said, or any other which those philosophers who are skilful in that music which is to be employed in education shall approve of. But Socrates, in Plato's Republic, is very wrong when he [1342b] permits only the Phrygian music to be used as well as the Doric, particularly as amongst other instruments he banishes the flute; for the Phrygian music has the same power in harmony as the flute has amongst the instruments; for they are both pathetic and raise the mind: and this the practice of the poets proves; for in their bacchanal songs, or whenever they describe any violent emotions of the mind, the flute is the instrument they chiefly use: and the Phrygian harmony is most suitable to these subjects. Now, that the dithyrambic measure is Phrygian is allowed by general consent; and those who are conversant in studies of this sort bring many proofs of it; as, for instance, when Philoxenus endeavoured to compose dithyrambic music for Doric harmony, he naturally fell back again into Phrygian, as being fittest for that purpose; as every one indeed agrees, that the Doric music is most serious, and fittest to inspire courage: and, as we always commend the middle as being between the two extremes, and the Doric has this relation with respect to other harmonies, it is evident that is what the youth ought to be instructed in. There are two things to be taken into consideration, both what is possible and what is proper; every one then should chiefly endeavour to attain those things which contain both these qualities: but this is to be regulated by different times of life; for instance, it is not easy for those who are advanced in years to sing such pieces of music as require very high notes, for nature points out to them those which are gentle and require little strength of voice (for which reason some who are skilful in music justly find fault with Socrates for forbidding the youth to be instructed in gentle harmony; as if, like wine, it would make them drunk, whereas the effect of that is to render men bacchanals, and not make them languid): these therefore are what should employ those who are grown old. Moreover, if there is any harmony which is proper for a child's age, as being at the same time elegant and instructive, as the Lydian of all others seems chiefly to be-These then are as it were the three boundaries of education, moderation, possibility, and decorum. INDEX ACHILLES, 76 Act of the city, what, 69 Actions, their original spring, i Administration, 76; whether to be shared by the whole community, 203 AEsumnetes, 96 AEthiopia, in what manner the power of the state is there regulated, 112 Alterations in government, whence they arise, 142; what they are, 143 Ambractia, the government of, changed, 151 Andromadas Reginus, a lawgiver to the Thracian Calcidians, 65 Animals, their different provisions by nature, 14; intended by nature for the benefit of man, 14; what constitutes their different species, 113 Animals, tame, why better than wild, 8 Arbitrator and judge, their difference, 49 Architas his rattle, 248 Areopagus, senate of, 63 Argonauts refuse to take Hercules with them, 93 Aristocracies, causes of commotions in them, 157; chief cause of their alteration, 158; may degenerate into an oligarchy, 79 Aristocracy, what, 78; treated of, 120; its object, 121 Art, works of, which most excellent, 20 Artificers and slaves, their difference, 24 Assemblies, public, advantageous to a democracy, 134 Assembly, public, its proper business, 133 Athens, different dispositions of the citizens of, 149 Barter, its original, 15 Being, what the nature of every one is, 3 Beings, why some command, others obey, 2 Body by nature to be governed, 8; requires our care before the soul, 232 Calchis, the government of, changed, 151 Calcidians, 65 Carthaginian government described, 60 Census in a free state should be as extensive as possible, 131; how to be altered, 162 Charondas supposed to be the scholar of Zaleucus, 64 Child, how to be managed when first born, 235; should be taught nothing till he is five years old, 235; how then to be educated, 236 Children, the proper government of, 22; what their proper virtues, 23; what they are usually taught, 240 Cities, how governed at first, 3; what, 3; the work of nature, 3; prior in contemplation to a family, or an individual, 4 Citizen, who is one? 66, 68; should know both how to command and obey, 73 Citizens must have some things in common, 26; should be exempted from servile labour, 51; privileges different in different governments, 68; if illegally made, whether illegal, 69; who admitted to be, 75; in the best states ought not to follow merchandise, 216 City, may be too much one, 27, 35; what, 66, 82; when it continues the same, 70; for whose sake established, 76; its end, 83; of what parts made up, 113; best composed of equals, 126 City of the best form, what its establishment ought to be, 149; wherein its greatness consists, 149; may be either too large or too small, 209; what should be its situation, 211; whether proper near the sea, 211; ought to be divided by families into different sorts of men, 218 City and confederacy, their difference, 37; wherein it should be one, 27 Command amongst equals should be in rotation, 101 Common meals not well established at Lacedaemon-well at Crete, 56; the model from whence the Lacedaemonian was taken, 56; inferior to it in some respects, 56 Community, its recommendations deceitful, 34; into what people it may be divided, 194 Community of children, 29, 30; inconveniences attending it, 31 Community of goods, its inconveniences, 28; destructive of modesty and liberality, 34 Community of wives, its inconveniences, 27 Contempt a cause of sedition, 146 Courage of a man different from a woman's, 74 Courts, how many there ought to be, 140 Courts of justice should be few in a small state, 192 Cretan customs similar to the Lacedasmonian, 57; assembly open to every citizen, 58 Cretans, their power, 58; their public meals, how conducted 58 Crete, the government of, 57; description of the island of 57 Customs at Carthage, Lacedaemon, and amongst the Scythians and Iberians, concerning those who had killed an enemy, 204, 205 Dadalus's statues, 6. Delphos, an account of a sedition there, 150 Demagogues, their influence in a democracy, 116. Democracies, arose out of tyrannies, 100; whence they arose, 142; when changed into tyrannies, 153; their different sorts, 184, 188; general rules for their establishment, 185; should not be made too perfect, 191 Democracy, what, 79, 80; its definition, 112, 113; different sorts of, 115, 118; its object, 122; how subverted in the Isle of Cos, 152 Democracy and aristocracy, how they may be blended together, 163 Democratical state, its foundation, 184 Despotic power absurd, 205 Dion, his noble resolution, 171 Dionysius, his taxes, 175 Dissolution of kingdoms and tyrannies, 169 Domestic employments of men and women different, 74 Domestic government, its object, 77 Domestic society the first, 3 Draco, 65 Dyrrachium, government of, 101 Economy and money-getting, difference, 17 Education necessary for the happiness of the city, 90; of all things most necessary to preserve the state, 166; what it ought to be, 166; the objects of it, 228, 229; should be taken care of by the magistrate, and correspond to the nature of government, 238; should be a common care, and regulated by laws, 238 Employment, one to be allotted to one person in an extensive government, 136 Employments in the state, how to be disposed of, 88-90; whether all should be open to all, 216 Ephialtes abridges the power of the senate of Areopagus, 63 Ephori, at Sparta, their power too great, 54; improperly chosen, 54; flattered by their kings, 54; the supreme judges, 55; manner of life too indulgent, 55 Epidamnus, an account of a revolution there, 150 Equality, how twofold, 143; in a democracy, how to be procured, 186 Euripides quoted, 72 Family government, of what it consists, 5 Father should not be too young, 232 Females and slaves, wherein they differ, 2; why upon a level amongst barbarians, 3 Forfeitures, how to be applied, 192 Fortune improper pretension for power, 91 Freemen in general, what power they ought to have, 86 Free state treated of, 121; how it arises out of a democracy and oligarchy, 122, 123 Friendship weakened by a community of children, 31 General, the office of, how to be disposed of, 98 Gods, why supposed subject to kingly government, 3 Good, relative to man, how divided, 201 Good and evil, the perception of, necessary to form a family and a city, 4 Good fortune something different from happiness, 202 Government should continue as much as possible in the same hands, 28; in what manner it should be in rotation, 28; what, 66; which best, of a good man or good laws, 98; good, to what it should owe its preservation, 124; what the best, 225 Government of the master over the slave sometimes reciprocally useful, ii Governments, how different from each other, 67; whether more than one form should be established, 76; should endeavour to prevent others from being too powerful-- instances of it, 93; how compared to music, in; in general, to what they owe their preservation, 160 Governments, political, regal, family, and servile, their difference from each other, i Governors and governed, whether their virtues are the same or different, 23;