Discoveries and Inventions of the Nineteenth Century

the propellers not having to act against the water, but only against the resistance of the atmosphere, would be whirled round at an enormous speed, and the machinery would sustain such shocks and strains as might endanger the whole apparatus. It is to prevent this that the “delay action valve” is provided. The automatic apparatus by which the torpedo’s course is regulated is a very remarkable part of the invention, and it admits of the nicest adjustments. 246This was the crown of Mr. Whitehead’s ingenuity, but the details were, by an arrangement between the government and the inventor, not to be made public, though necessarily communicated to certain officers in the service, and known to the chief artisans employed in their fabrication. These persons are all, we believe, required to give pledges not to divulge the arrangement of particular parts. But such details could scarcely be made intelligible, even should they be interesting, to the general reader. The principles upon which the controlling apparatus are arranged may, however, be comprehended without difficulty. The tail of the torpedo is provided with two rudders, one in its central vertical plane, and the other in its central horizontal plane. Their action in directing the torpedo’s course is exactly that which the tail supplies to a fish, or the rudder to a boat. Suppose that while the torpedo is passing through the water the vertical rudder is by any means turned towards one side, the course of the metallic fish will be diverted towards that side; or again, a turning upwards of the horizontal rudder would have the effect of directing the nose towards the surface, and would make the torpedo rise, and so on. Now the positions of the horizontal rudder are regulated from the “steering chamber,” in which a heavy weight is suspended like a pendulum, so as to be capable of swinging fore and aft. This pendulous weight actuates the horizontal rudder through a system of rods and levers, so that when it hangs vertically the horizontal rudder is level, but if from any cause the nose of the torpedo were directed downwards, the pendulous weight would come to a more forward position in the steering chamber, and would raise the rudder, and thus turn the nose towards the surface until the original horizontal position were regained. In the contrary case, of course, the reverse action would take place. But the torpedo, while preserving a horizontal position, might tend to sink to too great a depth, or rise too near the surface, and this is prevented by another adjustment, namely, a piston receiving the pressure of the water, which, on the other side, is opposed by a spring. If the torpedo sinks a little the pressure increases, the piston, which moves with perfect freedom without allowing water to pass in, is forced inwards, and its movement is communicated to the same levers that connect the pendulous weight with the horizontal rudder, the latter is raised, and then the nose of the torpedo is directed upwards, and it consequently approaches the surface again. In the contrary case the spring, relieved from some of the external pressure, operates the levers in the other direction. The compartment immediately behind the “steering chamber” contains the engines which are of the Brotherhood type, provided with three single acting cylinders. The three-fold throw prevents any possibility of the engine getting on a “dead point.” Though this compartment is the shortest in the torpedo, the engines in the larger sizes are capable of indicating as much as thirty horse power. It has for simplicity been stated above that the pendulous weight and the balanced piston act by means of rods on the horizontal rudder; this was so in the early patterns of the torpedo, but it was soon found that they did not do so with sufficient steadiness and promptitude, and the force they could apply was in the larger and swifter forms quite ineffective. Nowadays the engine compartment always contains a little piece of apparatus which is an arrangement of cylinder and piston, upon which the compressed air acts in one or the other direction according to the way its slide-valve is moved. It is this slide-valve that the rods from the “steering chamber” move, and allow 247the force of the compressed air to turn the rudder up or down. This auxiliary apparatus has the same relation to the torpedo rudder that the steam-steering apparatus of a large vessel has to its rudder. Although it is only about a few inches long, its power and delicacy are such that the pressure of half an ounce on its slide admits to its piston a force equal to 160 lbs., and its introduction has given the torpedo the power of steadily steering itself. Behind the engine compartment, but completely shut off from it, is another almost empty division occupying a considerable part of the length of the torpedo, and known as the “buoyancy chamber.” But it contains, attached to the bottom of it, a certain amount of ballasting, so adjusted to balance the weights of the other parts that the whole floats horizontally, and at the same time preserving the tube in one vertical position as regards its transverse diameter, i.e., so that the horizontal rudder is always horizontal. The shaft from the engine passes through this compartment, as also the rod from the small motor that moves the horizontal rudder. These, of course, pass through water-tight bearings. At the tail of the torpedo, behind the rudders, are two three-bladed screw propellers, of which the anterior one is mounted on a tubular shaft having a common axis with the other, but made to revolve in the opposite direction by means of a bevel wheel mounted on each independent shaft, with a third such wheel connecting them. The object of the double screw is to obviate “slip,” that is, ineffective motion of the blades through the water, and by this means the full power of the engines can be developed; while any tendency to deviation to right or left, due to the rotation, is reduced to a minimum. We have spoken of one horizontal and one vertical rudder, although externally there appear to be two of each kind, right and left, above and below, on the tail of the torpedo. These pairs, however, are so connected as to be always in the same respective planes. The controlling mechanism acting in two different ways on the horizontal rudder has been already indicated, but nothing has yet been said about the vertical rudder. It is not moveable by anything within the torpedo, but is commonly fixed by clamping screws in or about the same vertical plane as the axis of the torpedo, and it performs the same function as a kind of back fin, which, in the earlier forms, extended nearly the whole length of the tube; and that is obviating any tendency of the torpedo to roll about its axis. The vertical rudder can also be fixed at a considerable inclination to the axis should occasion require, and the effect of that would be to cause the torpedo to pursue a circular course of greater or less radius, according to the less or greater degree of inclination. Very rarely, however, would this be required, and the vertical rudder may be considered as fixed in the axial plane, or having such slight inclination as may, on trial, have been found necessary to counteract any tendency to lateral deviation. There are several different methods for discharging the Whitehead torpedoes from ships. They may be sent from a tube below the water-line, but the arrangements for that purpose are complicated and difficult to manage, while, on the other hand, the launch of the weapon is not perceived by the enemy, and it is at the same time out of the reach of any blow from a hostile missile while yet in its discharging tube. More commonly the discharging tube is arranged above the water-level. On regular torpedo boats, the tubes are sometimes mounted on pairs upon a revolving table, provided with many nice adjustments, and even the 248single above-water torpedo tube, as used between decks, is an apparatus having somewhat complicated appliances. The torpedo is expelled from the tube now preferably by a small charge of cordite. But in the Royal Navy no fewer than some twenty different patterns of torpedo tubes have been in use for the various sizes of torpedoes. In some of these, compressed air, in others gunpowder or cordite, in others, again, mechanical impulse propels the torpedo into its element. It would obviously be impossible within our limits to enter into details of these various constructions, or to attempt descriptions of all the ingenious contrivances applied to the torpedo itself, or to give an account of the means of defence against mines and torpedoes, this last being a matter belonging to naval tactics. The adoption of the torpedo as a naval weapon has given rise to special types of boats adapted for its employment, and these again have required other boats to destroy them (“torpedo-boat destroyers” or “catchers”). Light draught and high speed were desired in these last; but in many cases the intended speed was inferior to that of the torpedo boats that were to be caught. The following particulars about the British torpedo-boat destroyer Daring may be compared with those given of the cruiser Majestic. The Daring is 185 feet long, 7 broad, and she draws only 7 feet of water. Her speed is about 28½ knots per hour, with a steam pressure in the boilers of 200 lbs. per square inch, and an air pressure in the stoke-holds equivalent to 3 inches of water (forced draught.) The importance attached to the prospective use in war of the automobile torpedo may be shown by the fact that at the end of 1890 the number of torpedo boats built or laid down for England was 206, and for France 210, while other nations followed with numbers proportionate to their means. Forty “torpedo-boat destroyers” were in building for the British Navy towards the close of the year 1896, and now (March, 1897) it is announced that the number of torpedo boats and torpedo-boat destroyers in the French Navy is to be increased by 175. 249 Fig. 122.—M. Ferdinand de Lesseps. SHIP CANALS. Artificial canals are amongst the oldest of inventions, for, centuries ago, they have been constructed, even of very large dimensions, in various parts of the world. There is in China, for instance, a great canal, 900 miles in length and 200 feet broad, which is supposed to have been made 800 years ago. The advantages of canals did not escape the attention of the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans. We read of very early attempts to cut through isthmuses, in order to form a water communication between regions where other carriage would be long and difficult. It appears to be admitted that canals connecting the Red Sea with the Mediterranean existed some centuries before the Christian era, and to cut the Isthmus of Corinth by a waterway was a cherished project with several Roman Emperors, and now it appears that in this nineteenth century this project will shortly be realized. But as the canal-lock is but a comparatively modern invention, dating only from the fourteenth century, and first used in Holland, all the canals anterior to that period had to be designed as level cuts, a restriction which greatly increased the difficulties of the problem. Canals were in use in various parts of Europe, 250particularly in Holland and France, long before any were constructed in England, as, for example, the Languedoc Canal, which, by a cut of 150 miles, connects the Bay of Biscay with the Mediterranean. It is 60 feet broad, and attains, at its highest level, an elevation of 600 feet above the sea. The canal system in England was first introduced in the middle of the eighteenth century, and soon afterwards, the Duke of Bridgewater engaged the famous Brindley to construct a canal, connecting his collieries at Worsley with Manchester, about seven miles distant, and afterwards extended his scheme,