Discoveries and Inventions of the Nineteenth Century

the slit the flame of a Bunsen’s burner, the spectrum produced by any substance in this flame will, when the instrument is in proper adjustment, be seen on 424looking through the telescope, and the cross-wires being also in view, the point of their intersection may be brought into coincidence with any line of the spectrum, and the telescope being clamped in this position, the angular reading thus taken determines the position of the line. Thus, for example, the angular positions in which the principal Fraunhofer’s lines are seen having been observed and recorded, the angular position of any line in another spectrum will at once determine its position among the Fraunhofer lines; or the spectrum may be mapped by laying down the angular readings of the lines by means of a scale of equal parts. And, again, in the little prism in front of the slit we have the means of bringing two spectra in view at once, one being from a light directly in front, and the other from a light at the side. The two spectra are seen one above the other, and the coincidence or difference of their lines may be directly observed. When the instrument is in use, the prism and the ends of the tube are covered with a black cloth, loosely thrown over them, by which all stray light is shut out. The author has had in use for several years one of these instruments, and he cannot forbear expressing his perfect satisfaction with its powers, which he finds amply sufficient for all ordinary chemical purposes, while the accuracy of the workmanship is really wonderful, considering the very moderate price of the instrument. The substances the spectra of which are most conveniently examined are the metals of the alkalies and alkaline earths. Small quantities of the salts of these metals, placed in a loop of fine platinum wire, impart characteristic colours to the flame of a Bunsen burner or to that of a spirit-lamp. For the examination of the spectra the former is to be preferred, as the lines come out much more vividly. Indeed, at temperatures higher than that of the Bunsen’s burner, such as in the flame of pure hydrogen, or in the voltaic arc, some substances give out additional lines. In Plate XVII., Nos. 2 to 9, is shown the appearance of the spectra produced by the Bunsen’s burner when salts of the metals are held in the flame in the manner already mentioned, and the spectra are examined with the instrument just described. One of the simplest of these spectra is that produced by sodium compounds, such as common salt. The smallest particle of this substance imparts an intense yellow colour to the flame, and the spectrum is found to take the form of a single bright yellow line—No. 3. It has been estimated that the presence of the (1100000000)th part of a grain of sodium can be detected by the production of this line. Indeed, the very delicacy of this sodium reaction renders it almost impossible to get rid of this line, for sodium is found to be present in almost everything,—a fact the earlier observers of spectra were not aware of, for they attributed this yellow line to water, which was the only substance they knew to be so generally diffused. If a platinum wire be heated in the flame of the Bunsen burner until all the sodium indications have disappeared, it suffices to remove the wire, and, without allowing it to come into contact with anything, to leave it exposed to the air for a few minutes, to cause it again to give the characteristic yellow colour when again plunged into the flame. This is due to the fact that the element is contained in all the floating particles which pervade the atmosphere. The spectroscope is not required to show the presence of the sodium on the platinum which has been exposed to the air, the colour imparted to the flame being plainly visible to the eye, and it needs only the Bunsen burner and 2 in. of platinum wire to prove the fact, and also to show that mere contact with the fingers is enough to highly charge the wire with sodium compounds. Any volatile compound of potassium gives the spectrum 425represented by No. 2, the principal lines being a red line and one in the extreme violet, the latter being somewhat difficult to observe. There is also a third rather ill-defined red line, and a portion of a faint continuous spectrum. Salts of strontium impart a bright red colour to the flame, and the spectrum they produce is shown by No. 6, in which are seen several bright red lines and a fainter blue one. Calcium, which also gives a reddish colour to flame, furnishes an entirely different set of lines (No. 5), and barium salt another, containing numerous lines, especially some very vivid green ones. In all the cases we have named, and whenever bright-lined spectra are furnished by substances placed in the flame of a lamp, or in burning hydrogen gas, or in the intensely hot voltaic arc, there is evidence that the substances are converted into vapour or gas. We have already seen how hot solid carbon gives a continuous spectrum, while carbon in the state of gaseous combination gives most of the bright lines seen in the spectrum of coal-gas (No. 14). It is observed also that the more readily volatized are the salts, the more vivid are the bright lines they produce when heated in a flame. It must be understood that each element gives it own characteristic lines, that these are always in precisely the same position in the spectrum, that no substance produces a line in exactly the same position as another, however near two lines due to different substances may, in some cases, appear; and also, that however the salts of the different metals are mixed together, each produces its own lines, and each ingredient may be recognized. And this is done in an instant by an experienced observer—a mere glance at the superposed spectra of, perhaps, half a dozen metals, suffices to inform him which are present. There is also a peculiarity in this optical mode of recognizing the presence of bodies which gives the subject the highest interest, namely, the circumstance that the spectrum is produced and the bodies recognized, however far from the observer the luminous gas may be placed, the only condition required being that the rays reach the instrument. Until Kirchhoff and Bunsen’s spectroscopic investigations, lithium was supposed to be a rare metal, occurring only in a few minerals. It happens that this substance yields a remarkable spectrum (No. 4), for it gives an extremely vivid line of a splendid red colour, accompanied by only one other, a feeble yellow line; and the reaction is of very great delicacy, for 16000000 of a grain can easily be detected, and an eye which has once seen the red line readily recognizes it again. A single drop of a mineral water containing lithium has been found to distinctly produce the red line, in cases where the quantity contained in a quart of the water would have escaped ordinary chemical analysis. The spectroscope has shown that lithium, so far from occurring in only four or five minerals, is a substance very widely diffused in nature. In the waters of the ocean, in mineral and river waters, in most plants, in wines, tea, coffee, milk, blood, and muscle, this metal has been found. Dr. Roscoe states that the ash of a cigar, when moistened with hydrochloric acid, and held in a platinum wire in the flame of the Bunsen’s burner, at once shows the principal lines of sodium, potassium, calcium, and lithium. Salts of lithium and of strontium both impart a rich crimson tint to flames, and it is hardly possible to detect any difference in these colours with the naked eye; but, as the reader may see on comparing spectra No. 4 and No. 6, the prism makes a wide distinction. Matter for a very interesting chapter in the history of prismatic analysis has been furnished by the discovery of four new elements by means of the 426spectroscope. In 1860 Bunsen observed that the residue, after evaporation, of a certain mineral water, yielded spectra with bright lines which he had not seen before. He concluded that they were due to some unknown elements, and, in order to separate these, he evaporated many tons of the water, and was rewarded by the discovery of two alkaline metals, cæsium and rubidium. The delicacy of the spectrum reaction may be inferred from the fact of a ton weight of the water containing only three grains of the salts of each of these substances. Rubidium gives a splendid spectrum, containing red, yellow, and green lines, and also two characteristic violet lines; while cæsium has orange, yellow, and green lines, and two very beautiful blue lines, by which it is easily recognized. About the same time, Mr. W. Crookes discovered, in a mineral from the Hartz, another elementary body, the existence of which was first indicated to him by the characteristic spectrum it produces, namely, a single splendid green line (No. 8 spectrum). In 1864 two German chemists discovered, also in the Hartz, a fourth new element, which was detected by two well-defined lines in the more refrangible end of the spectrum—(see spectrum No. 9, in the plate). This metal was named Indium, in reference to the colour of its lines, and the names of the other three—cæsium, rubidium, and thallium, are also derived from the colours of their characteristic lines. Fig. 220.—Miniature Spectroscope. Although the reader may, from such representations of the spectra as those given in Plate XVII., form some idea of their appearance, he would find his knowledge of the subject much clearer if he had the opportunity of examining for himself the actual phenomena. We have already recommended the performance of certain easy experiments involving no outlay, but, in the matter of spectroscopes, carefully finished optical and mechanical work is absolutely necessary in the appliances. It fortunately happens that one eminent optician, at least, has made it his study to produce good spectroscopic apparatus at the lowest possible cost, and if the reader be interested in this subject, and desirous of trying experiments himself, he can, for a very moderate sum, be equipped with all the appliances for examining the phenomena we have described. He has only to procure, in the first place, a small direct-vision spectroscope, such as that represented of its actual size in Fig. 220, which is sold by Mr. Browning for twenty-two shillings; secondly, a Bunsen’s burner, a few feet of india-rubber tubing, two inches of platinum wire, and a few grains of the salts of lithium, strontium, thallium, &c. The whole expense will probably be covered by adding four shillings to the cost of the spectroscope, and the reader will then be in a position to see for himself the principal Fraunhofer lines, the spectra of the metals already referred to, and the absorption bands of the 427gases which have been mentioned, as well as the absorption bands in liquids which will be spoken of in the sequel. Fig. 221.—The Gassiot Spectroscope. The splitting up of a beam of light into its elements—which it is the office of the prism to produce—is accomplished by a single prism to a certain degree only. It separates the red from the green, for example; but the colours pass into each by insensible gradations through orange, yellow, 428and greenish yellow. If we allow the rays to fall upon a second prism after emerging from the first, the separation is carried further; the red, for instance, is spread out into different kinds of red, and so on with the rest. And the greater the number of prisms, the greater is the extension which is given to the spectrum. Now, just as by increasing the power of the telescope, new stars become visible, whose light was before too faint, and nebulæ, or