Discoveries and Inventions of the Nineteenth Century

for the steam power alone which would be requisite would amount to 390 horse-power for every four miles. We thus see that very high velocities would introduce a new order of difficulties in the practical working. The case as regards the velocity with which electric signals can be sent round the world is very different. An amusing hoax appears to have been perpetrated by some waggish telegraph clerk on an American gentleman at Glasgow, with regard to the pneumatic system of sending messages; for the gentleman sent to the “Boston Transcript” a letter, in which he relates that having sent a telegraphic message from Glasgow to London, he received in a few minutes a reply which indicated a mistake somewhere, and then he went to the Glasgow telegraph office, and asked to see his message. “The clerk said, ‘We can’t show it to you, as we have sent it to London.’ ‘But,’ I replied, ‘you must have my original paper here. I wish to see that.’ He again said, ‘No, we have not got it: it is in the post office at London.’ ‘What do you mean?’ I asked. ‘Pray, let me see the paper I left here half 347an hour ago.’ ‘Well,’ said he, ‘if you must see it, we will get it back in a few minutes, but it is now in London.’ He rang a bell, and in five minutes or so produced my message, rolled up in pasteboard.... I inquired if I might see a message sent. ‘Oh, yes; come round here.’ He slipped a number of messages into the pasteboard scroll, popped it into the tube, and made a signal. I put my ear to the tube and heard a slight rumbling noise for seventeen seconds, when a bell rang beside me, indicating that the scroll had arrived at the General Post Office, 400 miles off. It almost took my breath away to think of it.” In the journal called “Engineering,” into which this curious letter was copied, it is pointed out that to travel from London to Glasgow, a distance of 405 miles, in seventeen seconds, the carrier must have moved at the rate of 24 miles per second, or 5 miles a second faster than the earth moves in its orbit, and the carrier would have in such a case become red hot by its friction against the tube before it had travelled a single second. A plan of conveying, not telegraph messages, but parcels, was proposed and carried into effect some time ago, and more recently has been applied to lines of tubes in connection with the General Post Office. These tubes pass from Euston Station down Drummond Street, Hampstead Road, Tottenham Court Road, to Broad Street, St. Giles’s, whence, with a sharp bend, they proceed to the Engine Station at Holborn, and then to the Post Office. The tube is formed chiefly of cast iron pipes of a ⌓-shaped section, 4 ft. 6 in. wide and 4 ft. high, in 9 ft. lengths. There are curves with radii of 70 ft. and upwards, and at these parts the tube is made of brickwork and not of iron. The carriages run on four wheels, and are so constructed that the ends fit the tubes nearly, and the interval left is partly closed by a projecting sheet of india-rubber all round. The carriages are usually sent through the tube in trains of two or three, and the trains are drawn forward by an exhausting apparatus formed by a fan, 22 ft. in diameter, worked by two horizontal steam engines having cylinders 24 in. in diameter and a stroke of 20 in. The air rushes by centrifugal force from the circumference of the fan, and is drawn in at the centre, where the exhaust effect is produced. The tubes which convey the air from the main tube open into the latter at some distance from its extremities, which are closed by doors, so that after the carriage passes the entrance of the suction tube, its momentum is checked by the air included between it and the doors, which air is, of course, compressed by the forward movement of the carriage. At the proper moment the doors are opened by a self-acting arrangement, and the carriage emerges from the tube. There are two lines of tube—an “up” and a “down” line—and means are provided for rapidly transferring the carriages from one to the other at the termini. The time occupied in the transit is about 12 minutes. Some of the inclines have as much slope as 1 in 14, yet loads of 10 or 12 tons weight are drawn up these gradients without difficulty. The mails are sent between Euston Station and the Post Office by means of these tubes. Passengers have also made the journey as an experiment by lying down in the carriages. Fig. 174 shows one of the carriages and the entrance to the tubes. Great expectations have been formed by some persons of the applications of pneumatic force. Some have suggested its use for moving the trains in the proposed tunnel between England and France. But calculations show that for long distances and large areas such modes of imparting motion are enormously wasteful of power. Thus, in the tunnel alluded to it must be remembered that not only the train, but the whole mass of 348air in the tunnel would have to be drawn or pushed forward. The drawing of a train through by exhausting the air would be very similar to drawing it through by a rope; in fact, the mass of air may be regarded as a very elastic rope, but by no means a very light one, or one that could be drawn through without some opposing force which has a certain resemblance to friction coming into operation. Indeed, it has been calculated that in the case named, only five per cent. of the total power exerted by the engines in exhausting the air could possibly produce a useful effect in moving the train. Air has also been made the medium for conveying intelligence in another manner than by shooting written messages through tubes, for its property of transmitting pressure has been applied to produce at a distance signals like those made use of in the electric telegraph system. A few years ago, an apparatus for this object was contrived by Signor Guattari, whose invention is known as the “Guattari Atmospheric Telegraph.” In this there is a vessel charged with compressed air by a compression-pump, and the pressure is maintained by the same means, while the reservoir is being drawn upon. A valve is so arranged that the manipulator can readily admit the compressed air to a tube extending to the station where the signals are received, at which the pressure is made to move a piston as often as the sender opens the valve. This movement is made to convey intelligence when a duly regulated succession of impulses is sent into the tube—the receiving apparatus being arranged either to give visible or audible signals, or to print them on slips of paper, according to any of the methods in use with the electric telegraph. Certain advantages over the electric system are claimed for this pneumatic telegraph—as, for example, greater simplicity and less liability to derangement. The tubes, which are merely leaden piping of small bore, are also exempt from the inconvenient interruptions which electric communication sometimes suffers from electrical disturbances in the atmosphere. The pneumatic system is easily arranged, and from its great simplicity any person can in a few hours learn to use the whole apparatus, while it is calculated that the expense of construction and working would not be above half of that incurred for the electric system. For telegraphs in houses, ships, warehouses, and short lines, this invention will doubtless prove very serviceable; but for long lines a much greater force of compression would be required, and the time needed for the production of an impulse at the distant ends of the tubes would be considerably increased. [1875]. 349 Fig. 178.—The Sommeiller Boring Machines. ROCK BORING. Allusion has already been made to one great characteristic of our age, namely, the replacement, in every department of industry, of manual labour by machines. A brief notice of even the main features of the various contrivances which have been made to take the place of men’s hands would more than occupy this volume. Accordingly, we must omit all reference to many branches of manufacture, although the products may be of very great utility, and the processes of very high interest; and in taking one example here and another there, we must be guided mainly by the extent and depth of the influence which the new invention appears destined to exert. This consideration has, with scarcely an exception, decided the selection of the topics already discussed, and it has also determined the introduction of the present article, which relates to machines of no less general importance than the rest, although at first sight it might seem to enter upon the details of merely a special branch of industry. But so general are the interests connected with the subject we are about to lay before our readers, that we are not sure it would not have been more logical to have placed the present article before all the rest. For whence comes the iron of which our steam engines, tools, rails, ships, cannon, bridges, and printing presses are made?—whence comes the fuel which supplies force to the engines?—whence come, in fine, the substances which form the matériel of every art? Plainly from the earth—the nurse 350and the mother of all, and in most cases from the bowels of the earth, for her treasures are hidden far below the surface—the coal, and the ores of iron and other metals, are not ready to our hand, exposed to the light of day. The railways also, and the canals, can be made only on condition that we cut roads through the solid rocks, and pierce with tunnels the towering mountains. Hence the tools which enable us to penetrate into the substance of the earth present the highest general interest from a practical point of view, and this interest is enhanced by the knowledge of the structure and past history of our planet acquired in such operations. The operations by which solid rocks are penetrated in the sinking of shafts for mines, or in the driving of tunnels, drifts, headings, galleries, or cuttings for railways, mines, or other works, are easily understood. In the first place a number of holes—perhaps 3 ft. or 4 ft. deep and 2 in. or 3 in. in diameter—are formed in the rock. The holes are then charged with gunpowder or other explosive materials, a slow-burning match is adjusted, the miners retire to a safe distance, the explosion takes place—detaching, shattering, and loosening masses of the rock more or less considerable; and then gangs of workmen clear away the stones and débris which have been detached by the explosion, and the same series of operations is renewed. The holes for the blasting charges are formed by giving repeated blows on the rock with a kind of chisel called a jumper—the end of which is formed of very hard steel, so that the rock is in reality chipped away. The débris resulting from this operation is cleared away from time to time by a kind of auger or some similar contrivance. But for many purposes it is necessary to drill holes in rocks to great depths, hundreds of feet perhaps, as for example, in order to ascertain the nature of underlying strata, or to verify the presence of coal or other minerals before the expense of sinking a shaft is incurred. These bore-holes were commonly formed in exactly the same manner as the blast-holes already mentioned, by repeated blows of a chisel or jumper, which was attached to the end of a rod; and as the hole deepened, additional lengths of rod were joined on, and the rods were withdrawn from time to time to