Discoveries and Inventions of the Nineteenth Century

the form represented in Fig. 302e, which is one of the most sensitive. There, 591C and C´ are two small blocks of carbon, fixed on a small upright piece of wood. Two cup shaped cavities are hollowed out in the carbon blocks, and these serve to hold loosely, in a nearly vertical position, a small rod of gas retort carbon pointed at the ends. This rod is only about one inch in length, and the lower end merely rests on the bottom of the cup in C´, while the other is capable of moving about in the upper cavity, the vertical position being nearly maintained in a state of unstable equilibrium. The carbons are in the circuit of a voltaic cell or small battery, B, in the line through a Bell receiving instrument, which may be at a distance. When the microphone is to be used, it is placed on a table with a cushion or several folds of wadding beneath its base. If the receiver be applied to the ear of a listener, he will distinctly hear every word pronounced by one speaking near the microphone, even in a low tone; but a loud voice may be heard when the speaker is 20 or 30 feet from the instrument. The minutest vibrations conveyed to the stand are perceived at the receiver as loud noises. The tread of a fly walking over the board, S, is heard like the tramp of a horse, and the ticks of a watch are audible in the receiver when the ear is several inches away from it. The slight touch of a feather on the stand is distinctly audible, and a current of air impinging upon it is reproduced as the noise of a stream of water. The microphone is, in fact, the most sensitive detector of vibrations that is known, and its employment as a transmitter has brought the telephone to its present perfection. It has been constructed in an endless variety of forms, according to the purposes for which it is intended, and its simplicity is as wonderful as its extreme sensitiveness. We will further illustrate these qualities by an experiment of Mr. Willoughby Smith’s on the same principle. Instead of the two carbon blocks, he laid on the table, in parallel positions, two small rat tail files, and completed the circuit by a third file, laid across the others at right angles. This arrangement constituted so sensitive a transmitter that the listener at the distant Bell receiver could hear even the faint sound of the speaker’s breathing. Even three common pins, similarly crossed, make an effective transmitter. The feebleness of the variations in the current requisite to make the Bell 592receiver produce sounds is extraordinary, and a very weak battery current is sufficient, even under the circumstances of ordinary practical use. Still more remarkable is the fact that in favourable conditions the microphone is capable of transmitting sound without any battery at all, but merely with connections to earth, when the ticking of a watch placed upon the stand has been distinctly heard at the distance of nearly one-third of a mile, and speech, also, has been transmitted with unusual distinctness with the battery left out and merely a few drops of water placed at the carbon contacts; indeed, it is said that, even without the water, the voice may be heard. This effect has been attributed to the carbons and water forming a battery themselves, and in the latter to the moisture of the speaker’s breath supplying the fluid element. But, again, the microphone will not only transmit speech, but, under certain arrangements, it will reproduce it (when one of the carbon electrodes is attached to a membrane), although the result is less distinct than with the Bell receiver. It is, however, not so easy to explain how mere variations of current intensity can produce the effect where there can be no magnetic attractions and repulsions. We must, no doubt, look for the cause in some other property of electric currents. The transmitters used in various lines of telephonic communication, erected by the Post Office or by companies in Great Britain, are generally applications of the principle of the microphone, and not of that of either Mr. Bell’s or Mr. Edison’s original instrument. But more recently, Mr. Edison has most ingeniously adapted variations of sliding friction, as modified by the action of the undulatory current on a liquid electrolyte between the sliding surfaces to the production of a loud speaking telephonic receiver—that is, one by which the sounds are made audible to a large assembly. From this instrument, the notes of a cornet-à-piston, played in Brighton, have been distinctly heard throughout a large hall in London. Another curious transmitter is formed of a fine jet of water traversed by an electric current. Acoustic vibrations are easily set up in the jet, and these modify its conductivity so as to produce corresponding undulations of current intensity. It would take long to point out the many scientific applications of so sensitive an instrument as the microphone with its Bell receiver. As a medium for conveying speech to a distance, whether for purposes of peace or war, its use is sufficiently obvious. Some curiosities of musical transmission have been noticed, and such experiments are repeated from time to time with increasing success. It has been applied to many purposes in surgery and medicine. In many cases of deafness it has made conversation easy. Even the passage of the molecules of gases, when diffusing through porous partitions, Mr. Chandler Roberts has by its means made audible. The distances to which speech can now be transmitted are considerable, as conversations have been carried on by persons nearly 300 miles apart. 593 LIGHTHOUSES. Who does not regard with interest the lighthouses which at night throw their friendly beams across the sea, to guide the mariner in his course, and warn him of perils from sunken rock or treacherous shoal? The modern lighthouse, with its beautiful appliances, is entirely the result of the applied science of our age; and it affords a fine example of the manner in which experiments, carried on to determine natural laws apparently of an abstract character and without any obvious direct utility, give rise to inventions of the highest importance and most extended usefulness. The lofty structures which were erected near certain ancient harbours, and of which the Pharos of Alexandria is the most memorable example, burned on their summits open fires of wood; and whatever beacons existed from that time down to the end of last century were merely blazing fires of wood or coal. The lighthouses of the South Foreland, which were established in 1634, displayed coal fires until 1790, and the lighthouses in the Isle of Man were first illuminated with oil only in 1816. Down to the beginning of the present century, therefore, the modern lighthouses showed no improvement on the ancient plan. Even the Tour de Cordouan, at the mouth of the Garonne river, which was completed in 1610, and is one of the most famous of modern lighthouses, from its great height (200 ft.), and the care which has always been given to render it efficient, showed down to 1780 594merely a fire of billets of wood, the upward loss of the light being diminished by a rude reflector in the form of an inverted cone. In the improved means of obtaining artificial light, and in the admirable optical apparatus by which that light is utilized, we find the vast superiority of modern lighthouses. But these are sometimes erected on isolated, and almost submerged, rocks, exposed to the fury of the waves. The difficulties which have to be overcome in their construction cause some lighthouse towers to rank among the best specimens of engineering skill. We may, therefore, consider under the present head—the towers; the sources of light; the optical apparatus and its accessories. Fig. 303.—The Eddystone Lighthouse. One of the best-known lighthouses on the English coast is that on the Eddystone Rock, about 14 miles S.S.W. from Plymouth. The structure which now[9] stands upon this rock was the work of Smeaton, and was completed in 1759. The stones forming the lower courses of this tower, which is represented in Fig. 303, half in section and half in elevation, are dovetailed into the rock itself and into each other. The masonry is carried up in a solid mass for about 12 ft., the stone used being granite, which also constitutes the whole of the exterior masonry. The four upper apartments are formed with arched roofs, the side-thrust of which is counteracted by iron chains surrounding the tower. These chains, which are bedded in lead, were placed in their positions while hot, and by their contraction bound the structure together with great force. The masonry of the tower is 68 ft. high, and this is surmounted by the light-room, the total height from the lowest course of stonework to the gilt ball at the top being 94 ft., or nearly half that of the London Monument. The diameter at the base is 26 ft., and that at the top 15 ft. The light-room is of an octagonal shape, and is made of iron framework, glazed with thick plate glass. Below this are two store-rooms, a kitchen, and a bed-room. The Eddystone has now breasted the storms of more than a hundred years, and it remains as firm as the rock it is built on. Fig. 304 is a picture of this noble lighthouse, with the British fleet passing close to it, during a furious gale on the 22nd of October, 1859, or exactly a century after the completion of the structure. The incident of the man in the water, which occupies the foreground, is not an imaginary one, for it is recorded that the Trafalgar stopped in the midst of the storm to pick up a man who had fallen overboard. For eighteen hours the ships encountered the fury of the tempest, keeping out at sea in 595open order throughout the night. They wore in at dawn, came up the Channel in line of battle, steamed into Portland, and took up their anchorage without the loss of a sail, a spar, or a rope-yarn. 9. Smeaton’s tower proving unsafe, has since been taken down and replaced, in 1882, by one from Mr. Douglass’ design. Fig. 304.—The Eddystone in a Storm. The lighthouse tower on the Bell Rock is 100 ft. high, 42 ft. in diameter at the base, and 15 ft. at the top. The Inchcape Rock, on which it is placed, is the scene of Southey’s ballad of “Ralph the Rover,” and the lighthouse here is one of the most serviceable on the Scottish coast, for the 596dangerous spot on which it is placed lies in the direct track of all vessels entering the Firth of Tay from the German Ocean. The rock is submerged at spring tides to the depth of 12 ft. The tower bears a close resemblance in shape to that of the Eddystone: it is circular and faced with massive blocks of granite. The lower part, to the height of 30 ft., is solid, and the door is reached by a bronze ladder. The building contains five apartments, and a cistern for storing fresh water for the use of the keepers, who have sometimes to remain in their solitary situation for six or eight weeks together, the weather preventing the possibility of any communication with the shore. Still loftier than the tower on the Bell Rock is that which rises in the midst of the Skerryvore Reef, 12 miles from Tyree, a small island off the coast of Argyleshire. This building may be taken as a typical specimen of a detached lighthouse, and the difficulties overcome in its construction attest the skill of the engineer, Mr. Alan Stevenson, who has written a highly interesting account of the work. The rocks here are of gneiss, an extremely hard formation, and their surfaces are worn as smooth as glass by the action of the water. On one of a numerous series of these small islets, where only a narrow strip of rock, a few feet