Discoveries and Inventions of the Nineteenth Century

April to October, the lessened currents of certain of the Brazilian streams are diverted from their course into canals, so as to leave dry the bed of the stream, and here the mud is dug out to the depth of six or eight feet or more, and transported near the washing huts, these operations being continued throughout the dry season. When this is over the digging is necessarily interrupted by great volumes of water that fill the rivers and streams, and the diamond-seekers devote their attention to washing the mud that has been collected. About one cwt. of this is placed in a long trough, and water is made to flow in, while the negro labourer stirs up the mass with his hands, until the water runs off clear, all the particles of mud having been washed away. The residual gravel is then very carefully examined, stone by stone, and any diamonds found are handed to the overseer, who watches all proceedings from an elevated seat. These Brazilian diamonds are mostly of a small size: occasionally, but very rarely, stones of quite exceptional value are found, but perhaps not one in 10,000. Formerly when in the Brazilian fields a negro slave found one 698of 18 carats, or more (18 carats = 72 grains), he not only obtained his freedom, but was rewarded with gifts, and for the finding of smaller stones commensurate rewards were given. The value of a diamond of the larger sizes depends upon so many adventitious circumstances that it would not be easy for any one to state the money’s worth of an 18–carat stone, but, considering too that the price increases in a more rapid ratio than the weight, we may to some extent draw an inference from the published values in 1867 of smaller Brazilian brilliants, perfectly white, pure, and flawless, when one of 5 carats (20 grains) in weight was priced at £350. As the rough diamond gives a brilliant of only half its weight, we may from the above assume an 18–carat stone to be worth in its finished state at least £1,000. It may well be asked what are the qualities possessed by the diamond which have caused it to be so highly valued as an adornment all the world over; and here it will be proper to invite the reader’s attention to the chemical as well as to the physical character of the diamond. The most obvious and attractive quality of the cut brilliant is its unsurpassable lustre, which is due to its high refractive power. In a section of our article on light the subject of refraction has been dealt with, and an explanation given of the index of refraction. That of the diamond is the highest known, being 2·50 to 2·75; other precious stones have indices ranging from 1·58 to 1·78; those of glass and of quartz are between 1·50 and 1·57. It follows from the known laws of refraction that the limiting or critical angle is less for diamond than for other substances, as, for example, glass, for the posterior surface of a diamond will totally reflect all the light that falls upon it at any angle with the normal greater than 24°; glass will totally reflect only when the incidence is greater than about 42°: hence the diamond reflects from its farther surface about 64 per cent. of rays that glass similarly situated would allow to pass outwards without reflection. Another property in which the diamond excels all other substances is hardness. It is the hardest substance in nature; for a diamond will scratch every other, but by none can it be scratched, except by another diamond. Not but that by the application of a file the edges of a diamond or brilliant may be notched and broken; but this would be through sheer mechanical force tearing the substance, and would be a test of brittleness, not of hardness. These two properties have not unfrequently been confounded, as when it was foolishly prescribed as a test for the genuineness of a diamond, that it should be placed on an anvil and struck with a hammer. No doubt many good and valuable stones have been sacrificed by this ignorant treatment. The hardness of the diamond does not prevent its being reducible to powder when so required. Again, diamonds are sometimes in such a condition of internal strain that very slight shocks are sufficient to cause them to separate into fragments. We read of diamonds that are suspected to be in this condition being packed for transmission within raw potatoes. The extreme hardness of the diamond secures it from all those accidental abrasions and injuries to which softer materials are liable, so that it does not deteriorate by age or use. It is unaffected also by any chemical substances. In chemical composition the diamond is pure carbon, one of the most commonly diffused of the elementary bodies, as it enters into the constitution of the atmosphere, of all organic bodies, and of a vast number of mineral substances. Carbon in a less pure form also occurs naturally 699as graphite, plumbago or black lead, and in other conditions comes into ordinary use as already explained in our article on Iron. It was only towards the end of the eighteenth century that the composition of the diamond was demonstrated by the celebrated French chemist, Lavoisier, who actually burnt a diamond in oxygen gas, and found the resulting product to be carbonic acid gas, identical with that obtained by similarly burning a piece of charcoal. Soon afterwards another French chemist, Clouet, confirmed Lavoisier’s conclusion by producing steel from pure iron and diamond heated together, an experiment of much significance when considered in the light of the remarkable relation between these substances, which is one of the latest discoveries of our century. It should be observed that Clouet’s result implies a fusion of the diamond as well as of the iron in the act of entering into chemical combination. Like nearly every solid substance of definite chemical composition, this pure carbon takes the crystalline form. The phenomena of crystallization are of the highest interest and beauty, for in them we see shapeless matter fashioning itself into definite and often perfect geometrical solids, as if it had been wrought by the hand of some mathematical artist. Every substance forms crystals of some one shape when the conditions are identical, and one essential condition for any crystallization is that the particles should be capable of free movement in arranging themselves, and this condition can occur only when the substance is in the state of liquid or of gas. Crystals are commonly deposited from solutions when the solvent evaporates or is cooled down; or they are formed when a fused substance solidifies. In either case the crystals are the larger and more perfect as they are allowed the greater time to form. Now, carbon in any of its conditions has been found to be absolutely infusible and insoluble, and therefore the origin of the diamond has long been a puzzle to scientific men, very diverse surmises having been propounded on this subject. Some have thought it was separated from carbonic acid by the action of heat, or of electricity; others, that the carbon had been gasified by subterranean heat; others, among whom were Newton and the German chemist, Liebig, believed that heat had nothing to do with it, but that the crystals slowly separated from vegetable matters (hydro-carbons) in the process of decomposition under some unknown conditions; others, that the diamond crystallized out from liquid carbonic acid, holding under pressure some unknown form of carbon in solution; others, that carbon was ejected by volcanic action in a fused state; and so on. We hope to show that the problem has at length been solved, and how. The shapes of the natural crystals of the diamond must not be confounded with those of the cut brilliants. The most frequently met with of the former is the octahedron, or eight-sided figure, such as would result from two square pyramids joined base to base, the triangles forming the sides of the pyramids being of such a height that the three pairs of opposite points are equidistant one from another, so that the octahedron enclosed in a cube would have an apex in the middle of each surface of the cube. There are other shapes of diamond crystals, but they are all related to the cube, that is, they are all obtainable from the cube by successively slicing off edges and angles. The natural diamond sometimes has as many as 48 faces formed by such a process. This will easily be understood by the reader if he will take a cube of common soap and perform on it these operations gradually with a sharp knife, taking 700care always to make the new faces he produces equally inclined to the adjoining ones. He may begin by cutting off a tiny piece from one corner of the cube, forming a small equilateral triangle; then let him do the same at two opposite corners, and again at all the eight corners. Then he should make the cuts larger and larger, always producing equal sized equilateral triangles so long as these can be formed. In every case he will have shaped out such forms as belong to diamond crystals. Instead of this, he may pare off one or more edges of the cube, or he may in various ways combine the two operations, and he will probably be surprised at the variety of forms producible in this manner, all derived from the original cube and all representing possible forms of natural diamonds, and indeed those of any substance that crystallizes in the cubical system. A model of the diamond octahedron can be readily made from the description already given, and the whole series of operations will constitute an elementary but very instructive lesson in the science of crystallography. Diamonds are liable to occur with every imaginable distortion, so as to be scarcely recognizable by their external form. A very pure smooth uncut diamond, belonging to the Rajah of Mattam in Borneo, is shaped exactly like a pear, two inches in length. By the way, battles have been fought for the possession of this gem, and it is said that,£200,000 was vainly offered for it. The diamond, notwithstanding its hardness, splits with comparative ease in certain planes, and by such cleavage (a property common to all crystals) the octahedral form commonly emerges. It was not until the middle of the fifteenth century that the art of cutting the diamond into regular facets was practised, and this can be done only by the aid of diamond powder, prepared by crushing fragments and faulty stones in a hard steel mortar. The first operation is to split the stone by its natural cleavage, and the rough facets so produced of two diamonds are ground together until they are quite smooth. The grinding of other facets and the polishing are effected on horizontal discs of steel making 2,000 revolutions per minute, and overspread with diamond powder mixed with olive oil. The external surface of the diamond in its natural state is often very rough, the stone being always coated with a more or less opaque crust, so that its translucent interior is concealed or veiled; but when the reflection from its inner surfaces pierces this veil it glows as if lighted from within, giving that peculiar appearance which is called its “fire.” The surfaces of the diamond crystals are very often curved instead of being flat, and the dodecahedral shape, when this is the case, takes on an almost globular appearance. Diamonds of all colours are found, as well as the highly esteemed colourless stones. Yellow ones of various tints are frequent,—orange, brown, and pink are not very rare; but red, green, blue, and black are almost unique, at least in a condition to form large and perfect gems, and are accordingly much prized. The black diamonds found in Borneo are so hard that ordinary diamond powder has no effect whatever upon them; they have to be manipulated with their own dust.